Re-distributed manufacturing and the food-water-energy nexus: opportunities and challenges

Figures & data

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the bread SC in the UK.

Figure 2. Primary energy consumption in baking bread in MJ/kg, for large industrial, smaller scale and home baking. Data include measurements and results from LCA studies from various literature sources (Masanet, Therkelsen, and Worrell 2012; Espinoza-Orias, Stichnothe, and Azapagic 2011; Thomsson 1999; Carbon Trust 2010; Andersson and Ohlsson 1999; Braschkat et al. 2004; Beech 1980; Le-bail et al. 2010). The number of cases is shown below each boxplot, with the number of literature sources shown within brackets.

Table 1. Net import and export of prepared or preserved tomatoes by the UK in 2014 (Harvard University 2016).

Net import ($441M USD)		Net export ($6.94M USD)
Italy	61%	Ireland	53%
Portugal	13%	Russia	13%
Spain	8%	Others	11%
Germany	6%	Belgium	6%
Greece	5%	Norway	5%
United States	2%	Nigeria	5%
Others	1%	Hong Kong	4%
France	1%	Sweden	2%
Netherlands	1%	Singapore	1%
China	1%
Turkey	1%
Total	100%	Total	100%

Table 2. Interconnection of decisions at different layers related to food RDM and the FEW nexus.

Layer	Physical layer	Socio-economic layer		Policy and regulatory layer
		Commercial entities	Social entities
System components /actors	land, water bodies/courses, machinery, storage facilities, transport infrastructure	farmers, producers/processors, retailers, logistics operators	consumers, employees	government, NGOs
Issues/objectives	productivity, product quality, resource (e.g. energy and water) efficiency, effluents, emissions, wastes	costs and profitability, reliability of supply, competitiveness, product quality and variety, environmental sustainability	product quality, variety and availability, price, income and employment, environmental sustainability	security of supply, climate goals, public safety and well-being, affordability, accessibility, employment and social justice, environmental sustainability
Decisions	product and process design, choice of technology or practice, choice of resources	pricing, marketing, investment, product portfolio, re-location	consumption choices (e.g. what to buy), behavioural changes (e.g. waste reduction), participation to training	laws, policies, taxes, subsidies, investments, enforcement, education
Parameters	climate/weather conditions, land and resource availability, costs, regulations and standards for quality and safety	product characteristics, market share, subsidies, availability of capital and workforce	availability of alternatives, personal values, attitudes, health, budget	resource availability, purchasing power, financial situation, demographics, geopolitical situation, public opinion, climate
Decision consequences	land use, resource stress, change in workforce requirement	location and scale of production, contribution to taxes, prices, employment, profit	demand, market share, availability and quality of workforce	changing costs and benefits: environmental, economic and social

Masanet, E., P. Therkelsen, and E. Worrell. 2012. "Energy Efficiency Improvement and Cost Saving Opportunities for the Baking Industry – An ENERGY STAR® Guide for Plant and Energy Managers.” Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.

 Google Scholar

Espinoza-Orias, N., H. Stichnothe, and A. Azapagic. 2011. “The Carbon Footprint of Bread.” The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 16 (4): 351–365.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Thomsson, O. 1999. Systems Analysis of Small-Scale Systems for Food Supply and Organic Waste Management. SLU: Uppsala.

 Google Scholar

Andersson, K., and T. Ohlsson. 1999. “Life Cycle Assessment of Bread Produced on Different Scales.” The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 4 (1): 25–40.

 Google Scholar

Braschkat, J., A. Patyk, M. Quirin, and G. A. Reinhardt. 2004. Life cycle assessment of bread production – a comparison of eight different scenarios. DIAS report 9.

 Google Scholar

Beech, G. A. 1980. “Energy Use in Bread Baking.” Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 31 (3): 289–298.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Le-Bail, A., T. Dessev, V. Jury, R. Zuniga, T. Park, and M. Pitroff. 2010. “Energy Demand for Selected Bread Making Processes: Conventional versus Part Baked Frozen Technologies." Review of Journal of Food Engineering 96 (4): 510–9.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar