Contextualising capability development: configurations of knowledge governance mechanisms in project-based organizations

Figures & data

Table 1. Overview of the 23 case-study organistions.

Case	Industry sector	PBO type	Size of projects	Number of customers
Alpha	Telecommunication	Stand-alone	Small	Many
Beta	Construction/Real estate	Subsidiary	Large	Few
Gamma	Construction/Real estate	Subsidiary	Small	Many
Delta	Construction/Real estate	Subsidiary	Large and small	Few
Epsilon	Construction/Real estate	Subsidiary	Large and small	Few
Zeta	Construction/Real estate	Stand-alone	Small	Many
Eta	Construction/Real estate	Subsidiary	Large and small	Few
Theta	Construction/Real estate	Subsidiary	Small	Many
Iota	Construction/Real estate	Stand-alone	Small	Many
Kappa	Construction/Real estate	Subsidiary	Large and small	Few
Lambda	Construction/Real estate	Stand-alone	Small	Many
Mu	Construction/Real estate	Subsidiary	Small	Many
Nu	Construction/Real estate	Subsidiary	Large and small	Few
Xi	Engineering	Subsidiary	Large and small	Few
Omicron	Mining	Subsidiary	Large	Few
Pi	Telecommunication	Subsidiary	Large	Few
Rho	Construction/Real estate	Subsidiary	Large and small	Few
Sigma	Construction/Real estate	Subsidiary	Large and small	Few
Tau	Construction/Real estate	Subsidiary	Large and small	Few
Upsilon	Construction/Real estate	Stand-alone	Large and small	Many
Phi	Electrical equipment	Subsidiary	Large and small	Few
Chi	Engineering	Subsidiary	Large	Few
Psi	Logistics	Subsidiary	Large and small	Many

Figure 1. Elements of shifting.

Figure 2. Elements of leveraging.

Figure 3. Elements of adapting.

Table 2. Configurations of KG mechanisms for capability development.

	Configuration
	Balanced	Interactive	Formalistic	Fragile
KG strategy	Variation	Interactive	Document-based	Laissez-faire
Top management support	Strong	Semi-strong	Semi-weak	Weak
Use of mechanisms	Many and heterogeneous	Few and homogenous	Few and homogenous	Few and ad hoc
General uptake of KG mechanisms	Strong uptake of informal and formal mechanisms	Strong uptake of informal mechanisms	Strong uptake of formal mechanisms	Weak uptake of formal and informal mechanisms
Project managers’ loyalties	Projects and PBOs	Projects, and partly PBOs	Projects	Projects
Cases	Zeta, Eta, Iota, Kappa, Lambda, Mu, Phi, Xi	Alpha, Epsilon, Theta, Rho, Upsilon	Pi, Sigma, Tau, Chi, Psi	Beta, Gamma, Delta, Nu, Omicron

Table 3. Learning processes and knowledge governance mechanisms.

Learning process	Preconditions and triggers	Formal mechanisms	Informal mechanisms
Shifting	Major reconfiguration driven by external triggers: Compliance with new regulations (Beta, Gamma, Delta, Epsilon, Zeta, Eta, Theta, Iota, Kappa, Lambda, Mu, Nu) Changing customer requirements and unpredictable market conditions (Zeta, Iota, Lambda, Mu) Major reconfiguration driven by internal triggers: Changes of project directors or CEOs (Epsilon, Xi, Rho, Sigma) Structural changes (Omicron, Rho, Tau)	Guidelines and procedures for new ways of undertaking projects Implementation of new management models Implementation of new contractual forms New trainings and courses Human resources practices Redesign of organisational structure Change of work responsibilities (Kappa, Xi, Rho, Sigma, Tau, Phi, Psi, Omicron)	Implementation of new cultural values Translation and modeling of new vision Use of leadership strategies to empower and motivate employees (Iota, Kappa, Rho, Sigma)
Leveraging	Ability to stimulate cross-project learning in PBOs Opportunity-driven (Zeta, Eta, Theta, Iota, Kappa, Lambda, Mu, Rho) Failure-driven (Beta, Nu, Sigma, Tau)	Lessons-learned databases Formal reviews Formal meetings Mentoring Trainings and courses PMOs (Alpha, Zeta, Iota, Lambda, Mu, Pi, Rho, Sigma, Tau, Upsilon, Chi)	Informal meetings Coffee breaks Ongoing voluntary interactions Informal project manager networking (Alpha, Zeta, Iota, Lambda, Mu, Nu)
Adapting	Performance-driven triggers Adjust to new technologies (Alpha, Epsilon, Eta, Mu, Rho, Tau) Incremental improvements of systems, procedures, and processes (all firms) Improve management of complex projects (Zeta, Eta, Rho, Sigma, Phi) Ensure continuous product innovation (Mu) Achieve excellence in project operations (Alpha, Zeta, Iota, Kappa, Lambda)	Employee orientation (Alpha, Zeta, Iota, Lambda) Facilitating remote meetings, reading sessions, and conferences (Zeta, Eta, Theta, Iota, Kappa, Lambda, Mu, Chi) Skills training (Alpha, Zeta, Eta, Theta, Iota, Kappa, Lambda, Mu) Communities of practice (Zeta, Eta, Theta, Iota, Kappa, Lambda, Mu, Omicron, Rho)	Self-driven initiatives for skills development (Zeta, Eta, Theta, Iota, Kappa, Lambda, Mu, Rho, Omicron) Informal meetings and project rooms (Zeta, Iota, Lambda, Pi, Chi)
	Resource-driven triggers Improve soft and technical skills (Zeta, Eta, Theta, Iota, Kappa, Lambda, Mu, Rho, Omicron) Improve customer relationships (Gamma, Epsilon, Zeta, Eta, Mu, Rho, Sigma, Upsilon)

Table A1. Patterns observed in the case-study organisations.

PBO	Triggers of shifting	Mechanisms that facilitate or hinder shifting	Triggers of leveraging	Mechanisms that facilitate or hinder leveraging	Triggers of adapting	Mechanisms that facilitate or hinder adapting
Alpha	New managing director	Increased control and centralised decision making	Proactive search for ideas; environment for sharing rather than blaming	Informal and formal meetings, PMO, lessons-learned, informal chats	The need to introduce uniform procedures and project management processes	New enterprise project management system, buddy programmes for employee orientation, frequently scheduled informal meetings to break down cross-departmental silos
Beta	New regulations on the market	New contracts and regulations	Major failures in project execution w.r.t. budget overruns, quality, and schedule	New contracts and regulations	Major failures in project execution w.r.t. budget overruns, quality, and schedule	New contracts and regulations
Gamma	New regulations on the market	Formal; enforced by top management	Employee experience; a need for improved knowledge sharing	Enabled by bottom-up–driven initiatives of lessons-learned meetings among young employees (often women); hindered by elder men in the organisation with a hostile attitude toward knowledge activity	Customer complaints, major failures in project executions w.r.t. budget overruns, quality, and schedule	Working in pairs (from different departments) when meeting customers and during the whole project process to ensure both cross-functional knowledge sharing and long-term quality of the end product
Delta	New regulations on the market; new project director	New directives and enforced authority; quitting by people with a different mind-set – managing by fear	Reactive, ad hoc, on an as-needed basis	Formal meetings; informal chats with trusted colleagues	Major and repeated failures in project execution w.r.t. budget overruns, quality, and schedule	Updating of guidelines, procedures, and policy documents
Epsilon	New regulations on the market; new CEO	New enforced directives and procedures; hindrance by politicians and difficulties in recruiting appropriate staff	Reactive; lessons- learned	Hampered by project participants forusing mainly on delivery and then moving on; not prioritising lessons-learned activities	Major failures in project execution w.r.t. huge budget overruns, quality, and schedule; new customer requirements and new technology	Updating of guidelines, procedures, and policy documents; rigour in formal evaluation processes of both internal and external reviewers
Zeta	New regulations on the market; company merger	New directives; change in organisation culture	Proactive internal search for new and improved ideas	Working in pairs, training, lessons-learned meetings, workshops; attempts to foster stronger identification (among project managers) with the PBO than with the project	New customer needs and new technology; new complex projects	External: collaborations with experts and close customer relationships; actively searching feedback from customers; careful match of personalities between customers and project managers. Internal: working in pairs; reviews, meetings, and attempts to foster a flexible environment that motivates employees to develop competencies
Eta	New regulations on the market	Implementation of new standards, courses, and training; hiring of motivated and curious individuals; not allowing a hostile knowledge environment – training of values	Proactive and internal search for new and improved ideas	Reviews, value engineering, value management sessions, mentoring; attempts to foster stronger identification (among project managers) with the PBO than with the project	Proactive and cross-functional search for new ideas; new customer needs, new technology, and new complex projects	Knowledge-friendly environment; knowledge sharing as a responsibility; no tolerance of selfish behaviour (share both mistakes and successes); formal, rigorous, and comprehensive annual reviews of employee performance and contributions to improving the business
Theta	New regulations on the market	Implementation of new standards and project processes	Proactive and internal search for new and improved ideas	Meetings, training, company conferences, workshops, informal chats; attempts to foster stronger identification (among project managers) with the PBO than with the project	Desire to win awards in the market	Close relationship with customers; training, courses, and conferences; learning culture
Iota	New regulations on the market.	Development of new skills and a culture characterised by respect, knowledge development, and innovation	Proactive and internal search for new ideas.	Meetings, training, company conferences, workshops, informal chats	Desire for excellence	Mentoring, continuous process updates, training, reviews; close relationships with customers and universities
Kappa	New regulations on the market; requirements of shareholders and customers	New processes, procedures, and guidelines for project execution; internal research department	Transfer findings from R&D projects to business projects	Focus sessions, guidelines, formal reviews, training, courses	One of the largest players in the market	Cross-functional involvement in projects throughout the project process; close relationship with customers and universities
Lambda	New regulations on the market	New sustainability regulations; striving to create a sustainable and healthy environment	Transfer of technical solutions across projects to provide the best outcome	Face-to-face meetings, not focusing on lessons-learned; incentivizing teams rather than individuals; a potential hindrance to overall performance is the strong focus on technical aspects and a weak focus on ‘soft’ issues such as leadership and human relations	Desire to win awards for providing high-class end products and services based on sustainable and environmentally friendly solutions for customers	Close collaboration with universities; attending research conferences, workshops, and focus meetings; implementing incentives to promote the learning of sustainability-related aspects
Mu	New regulations on the market	New structures, cultures, processes, and guidelines	Same mistake is only allowed once in the organisation	Pressure on employees to avoid the same mistake twice and to avoid the mistakes of their colleagues; informal meetings and chats; formal training sessions and workshops	Providing innovative products	Focus groups with customers; national meetings and study tours; training of values and skills; courses, rigorous post-project reviews
Nu	New regulations on the market; a need to improve customer relationships	Decentralized organisational structure, new policy and guidelines; decreased organisational silos by merging five departments; process and outcome controlled by top management	Reactive need to share more experiences between project managers	Implementation of office support to improve project-to-project learning; open-office landscape; improved intranet	Reactive need to improve processes and relationships with customers	Implementation of office support to improve cross-functional knowledge sharing; improved intranet; new standards
Xi	New CEO; implementation of modified management logic with more emphasis on flexibility and speed	Improved process-orientation with more formal review and administrative systems to align the organisation	Rotation of project management responsibility among business and development projects	Skills, training, procedures, culture	The need to align the organisation for greater efficiency – externally driven	Change of project management team organisation; establishment of cross-project team model
Omicron	The need to improve coordination and transparency across divisions	Change of organisational structure toward a more project-oriented and matrix-type configuration	Search for technical solutions; a need to improve collaboration among projects	Informal interactions, collaboration, chats, wiki	The need to improve collaboration among departments	Collaborative tools such as corporate repository, remote meetings, internal conferences
Pi	*	*	Reactive need to share knowledge among project managers – driven from the top	Lessons-learned database, intranet, formal meetings, wiki	The need to improve project processes	New environment to improve knowledge sharing within the organisation
Rho	New CEO; a need to improve efficiency and effectiveness; a need to align the organisation	Implementation of new networks and improved collaboration between six business districts; implementation of a PMO and new guidelines; improved process orientation	Technical solutions driving development needs	Improved project manager networks; technical experts in the PMO allowing knowledge to prosper between projects; formal reviews; strong technical focus	The need to align the organisation	New ‘gate control’ system of project performance; new courses and new network structure to bridge silos; hindrances include employees that have no incentive and hence are reluctant to change
Sigma	New project director; new customer requirements	Implementation of a PMO and new project processes; implementation of a new project role (facilitator) to improve relationships between customer and projects during programming and design phases	Reactive need to share more experiences among project managers	Informal meetings; formal initiatives not successful owing to dominant project culture	The need to improve project process and customer satisfaction	One human-oriented project manager for early phases and one technical-oriented project manager for execution phases; hindrances include not enough cross-functional collaboration with other departments
Tau	Internal employee pressures; new marketing director	New organisational structures and processes	Reactive need to share more experiences among project managers	Project meetings; informal chats and meetings	The need to improve cross-functional knowledge sharing	Establishment of review sessions with employees across departments; improved intranet
Upsilon	Need to improve project business to stay competitive nationally and internationally	New contract forms; increased number of turnkey projects; separate division for special projects	A need to find innovative solutions in the project business to meet customer demands	Transfer of project management team model from development project to business projects	The need to improve customer satisfaction and risk management across the organisation	Modified project organisation with a revised gate model and risk management procedures
Phi	New technological innovation; different types of projects; extended responsibility of projects	New management logic and organisational structure for project business	The need to handle uncertainties in business projects	Transfer of development project practices	The need to generate and manage complex projects	Change of project management team organisation
Chi	*	*	Reactive need to share knowledge among project managers – driven from the top	Face-to-face meetings; wiki; use of intranet to share data and information; lessons-learned databases	The need to improve cross-functional knowledge sharing	Process improvement projects; formal meetings organised between project managers and with functional departments; establishment of PMO
Psi	External and internal needs to improve efficiency and become more innovative	Change of business model with greater emphasis on speed and shorter lead times	The need to improve management of complexity and cooperation across projects	Transfer of strategic project managers from change projects and development projects to business projects	The need to improve project skills for managing different types of projects in the organisation	Forming a pool of strategic project managers; new organisational logic with dedicated project teams

*The empirical data yield no evidence of shifting in Pi or Chi.