Recent physical and sexual violence against adults with severe mental illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Figures & data

Figure 1. Flowchart of included studies.

Table 1. Details of all included studies.

Reference	Year	Design	Country	Setting	Inclusion criteria	SMI n	Sex	Mean age(SD)/range	Time(months)	Violence type	Prevalence (95% CI)	Qualityscore(Max =12)^a	Recentdomesticviolencereported?
Bengtsson-Tops and Ehliasson (2012)	2012	CS	Sweden	OP (multi-centre)	Psychosis, ongoing service contact, living in community	174	M&F	46	12	Any Physical Sexual	33.3 (26.4–40.9) 19.5 (13.9–26.2) 14.9 (10.0–12.1)	8	Yes (sub-type)
Bengtsson-Tops, Markstrom, and Lewin (2005)	2005	CS	Sweden	OP&IP (regional)	Contact with services; excluded acute psychosis, LD	1382	F	39 (13)	12	Physical Sexual	5.9 (4.7–7.2) 3.2 (2.3–4.3)	7	No
Brekke, Prindle, Bae, and Long (2001)	2001	CS	USA	OP (local)	Schizophrenia	172	M&F	33 (7)	36	Any Physical Sexual	34.3 (27.2–41.9) 16.3 (11.1–22.7) 0.6 (0–3.1)	4	No
Chang et al. (2011)	2011	CS	USA	OP&IP (local)	SZ, bipolar, PTSD, anxiety	428	M&F	39	12	Physical (IPV)Sexual (IPV)	10.3 (7.6–13.6) 5.6 (3.6–8.2)	6	Yes (exclusively)
Chapple et al. (2004)	2004	CS	Australia	OP&IP (multi-centre)	Psychosis	962	M&F	18–64	12	Physical	17.9 (15.5–20.4)	6	No
Crisanti, Frueh, Crisanti, and Frueh (2014)	2014	CS	USA	OP (multi-centre)	SZ, bipolar, major depression, PTSD, PD	2208	M&F	42	6	Any	12.3 (11.0–13.8)	8	No
Dean et al. (2007)	2007	Cohort	UK	OP&IP (multi-centre)	Psychosis, 2+ past admission; excluded primary substance misuse, brain disorder	632	M&F	38 (11)	24	Physical	23.1 (19.9–26.6)	7	No
Fitzgerald et al. (2005)	2004	CS	Australia	OP&IP (regional)	Schizophrenia spectrum	348	M&F	34 (10)	1	Any	4.3 (2.4–7.0)	5	No
Fortugno et al. (2013)	2013	CS	UK	IP (multi-centre)	Schizophrenia spectrum	357	M&F	36	12	Physical	37.8 (32.8–43.1)	5	No
Fortugno et al. (2013)	2013	CS	Europe(6 countries)	IP (multi-national)	Schizophrenia spectrum	543	M&F	40	12	Physical	28.0 (24.3–32.0)	5	No
Goodman et al. (2001)	2001	CS	USA	OP&IP (multi-centre)	SZ, SZA, bipolar, major depression	782	M&F	43 (10)	12	Any PhysicalSexual	35.0 (31.7–38.5) 30.3 (27.1–33.7) 12.7 (10.4–15.2)	7	No
Hahn, Rigby, and Galletly (2014)	2014	CS	Australia	OP (multi-centre)	SZ, SZA, bipolar, psychotic depression	399	M&F	18–64	12	Any	23.1 (19.0–27.5)	4	No
Havassy and Mericle (2013)	2013	CS	USA	IP (local)	Service contact, no or public insurance, HIV − ve	419	M&F	18–50	1	Any	34.4 (29.8–39.1)	7	No
Hiday et al. (2001)	2001	RCT	USA	IP (multi-centre)	Psychosis; ill ≥1 year, treatment in past year, functionally impaired, OPC	331	M&F	41	4	Any	8.2 (5.4–11.6)	5	No
Hodgins, Alderton, Cree, Aboud, and Mak (2007)	2007	CS	UK	IP (local)	SZ, SZA, bipolar, major depression, drug/alcohol induced psychosis	205	M&F	38 (11)	6	Any	51.2 (44.2–58.2)	6	No
Honkonen, Henriksson, Koivisto, Stengard, and Salokangas (2004)	2004	Cohort	Finland	IP (multi-centre)	SZ (not sza/ schizophrenifrom)	666	M&F	15–64	36	Any	5.5 (3.9–7.5)	6	No
Hsu et al. (2009)	2009	CS	Taiwan	OP&IP (local)	SZ, SZA, 'major affective'	155	M&F	37 (12)	12	Any	7.1 (3.6–12.3)	7	No
Kamperman et al. (2014)	2014	CS	Netherlands	OP (multi-centre)	Psychosis, bipolar, major depression (> 2 years)	956	M&F	45 (10)	12	Physical Sexual	6.4 (4.9–8.1) 5.4 (4.1–7.1)	9	No
Katsikidou et al. (2013)	2013	CS	Greece	OP (local)	SZ, SZA, bipolar (DSM-IV), past IP treatment; exc. dementia, organic, sub mis	150	M&F	43 (12)	12	Physical Sexual	28.7 (21.6–36.6) 16.4 (8.8–27.0)	3	Yes (as subtype)
Khalifeh, Moran, et al., 2015	2015	CS	UK	OP (local)	CMHT care	303	M&F	41 (6)	12	Any (IPV) Sexual	19.1 (14.9–24.0) 6.3 (3.8–9.8)	8	Yes (as sub-type)
McPherson et al. (2007)	2007	Cohort	USA	OP&IP (local)	SZ, SZA, bipolar, major depn; caring for child aged 4–16	324	F	36 (5)	12	Any (IPV)	22.2 (17.8–27.1)	6	Yes (exclusively)
Morgan et al. (2010)	2010	CS	UK	OP (multi-centre)	CMHT care	71	F	50 (14)	12	Physical (IPV)	15.5 (8.0–26.0)	7	Yes (exclusively)
Schomerus et al. (2008)	2008	CS	Europe(UK, France,Germany)	OP&IP (multi-national)	SZ; no hospital past year, not homeless, not planning move	1204	M&F	41 (11)	30	Any	10.0 (8.4–11.9)	8	No
Silver et al. (2011)	2011	Cohort	USA	IP (multi-centre)	Recently discharged, civil admission	826	M&F	30 (6)	2.5	Any	19.4 (16.7–22.2)	7	No
Silver, Arseneault, Langley, Caspi, and Moffitt (2005)	2005	Cohort	New Zealand	Birth cohort (local)	Schizophrenia spectrum	38	M&F	21 (0)	12	Physical Sexual	57.9 (40.8–73.7) 13.2 (4.4–28.1)	7	No
Silver (2002)	2002	CS	USA	IP (local)	SZ/bipolar/ depression/ 'psychosis'/ sub mis/PD	270	M&F	18–40	2.5	Any	15.2 (11.1–20.0)	5	No
Sturup, Sorman, Lindqvist, and Kristiansson (2011)	2011	CS	Sweden	IP (local)	Recently discharged, social sec no.	390	M&F	37 (12)	12	Any	21.3 (17.3–25.7)	8	No
Teplin et al. (2005)	2005	CS	USA	OP&IP (local)	Psychosis/ major affective disorder, ever hospitalized, medication past 2 years; excluded 1st contact, in crisis	936	M&F	42 (11)	12	Any PhysicalSexual	25.3 (22.6–28.2) 19.0 (16.6–21.7) 2.6 (1.6–3.8)	10	No
Tsigebrhan, Shibre, Medhin, Fekadu, and Hanlon (2014)	2014	CS	Ethiopia	Household survey(regional)	SZ, SZA, bipolar I	201	M&F	40 (8)	12	Any Sexual	17.4 (12.4–23.4) 2.5 (0.82–5.7)	9	No
White, Chafetz, Collins-Bride, and Nickens (2006)	2006	CS	USA	IP (local)	Contact with services	308	M&F	38	6	Any	25.6 (20.9–30.9)	3	No

Time: violence timeframe; CS: cross-sectional; OP: outpatients; IP: inpatients; M: male; F: female; IPV: intimate partner violence; CI: confidence interval; NR: not reported; NA: not applicable; SZ: schizophrenia; SZA: schizoaffective; sub mis: substance misuse; QoL: quality-of-life.

^aSee Supplementary Table S2 for details.

Table 2. Summary of characteristics of prevalence studies.

Characteristics	Number ofstudies(Total n = 30)
Design
Cross-sectional	24
Cohort	5
RCT	1
Country
USA	11
UK	5
Rest of Europe	8
Australia/New Zealand	4
Other (Taiwan, Ethiopia)	2
Setting
Clinical inpatients	10
Clinical inpatients & outpatients	10
Clinical outpatients	8
General population	2
Gender
Men and women	27
Women only	3
Violence timeframe
1–6 months	8
12 months	18
24–36 months	4
Violence type
Physical or sexual (not disaggregated by type)	14
Physical or sexual (disaggregated by type)	11
Physical violence only	5
Violence perpetrator
Any (not disaggregated by perpetrator)	24
Any (disaggregated for community & domestic violence)	2
Intimate partner violence	4

Table 4. Prevalence of recent domestic violence (partner violence (PV) or family violence (FV)).

Reference, country	SMI n	Definition of DV	Timeframe(months)	Prevalence in women	Prevalencein men	Prevalence in mixedsamples: % (95% CI)
Bengtsson-Tops et al. (2012), Sweden	174 men and women	Physical partner/family violence	12			PV 4.0 (1.6–8.1)FV 2.9 (0.94–6.6)
Chang et al. (2011), USA	428 men and women	Physical or sexual partner violence	12			PV 10.3 (7.6–13.6)
Katsikidou et al. (2013), Greece	150 men and women	Physical or sexual partner/family violence	12			FV 14.7 (9.4–21.4)
Khalifeh, Moran, et al., 2015, UK	133 women, 170 men	Physical or sexual partner/family violence	12	PV 16.9 (10.8–24.7) FV 15.8 (10.0–23.1)	PV 9.4 (5.2–15.3) FV 6.5 (3.3–11.3)
McPherson et al. (2007), USA	324 women	Physical or sexual partner violence	12	PV 22.2 (17.8–27.1)
Morgan et al. (2010), UK	71 women	Physical partner violence	12	PV 15.5 (8.0–26.0)

Figure 2. Meta-analysis: prevalence of any or physical violence, stratified by gender where data available.

Figure 3. Meta-analysis: crude OR for any or physical victimization in people with compared with those without SMI.

Table 3. Details of comparative studies (on victimization among people with vs without SMI).

Reference	Design	Country	Gender	SMI population	Control population	SMI n	Control n	Violence type	Crude OR (95% CI)	Adjusted OR(95% CI)	Qualityscore
Hsu et al. (2009)	CS	Taiwan	Mixed	OP&IP (local)	National CVS data	155	10 487	Any	1.9 (1.0–3.5)	NR	3
Kamperman et al. (2014)	CS	Netherlands	Mixed	OP (local)	National CVS data	956	38 227	Physical Sexual	6.1 (4.6–8.1) 3.5 (2.6–4.7)	4.9 (3.7–6.4)^a 3.9 (3.1–5.1)^a	8
Katsikidou et al. (2013)	CS	Europe	Mixed	OP (local)	Relative of general hospital inpatients	150	150	Physical Sexual	4.6 (2.3–9.2) 2.1 (0.8–5.7)	NR	4
Khalifeh, Johnson, et al. (2015)	CS	UK	Mixed	OP (local)	National CVS data	308	22 606	Any Sexual	7.7 (6.1–9.7) 5.5 (3.1–9.9)	2.4 (1.5–3.9)^b 2.1 (0.98–4.7)^b	8
Silver (2002)	CS	USA	Mixed	IP (local)	Neighbourhood residents	270	477	Any	2.4 (1.5–3.9)	1.8 (1.0–3.3)^c	7
Silver et al. (2005)	Cohort	New Zealand	Mixed	Dunedinbirth cohort	Dunedin birth cohort	38	562	Physical Sexual	5.3 (2.7–10.5) 16.9 (4.7–61.2)	3.2 (1.5–6.7)^d 1.9 (0.6–2.9)^d	10
Sturup et al. (2011)	CS	Europe	Mixed	IP (local)	National CVS data	390	1 170	Any	6.9 (4.7–10.2)	NR	7
Teplin et al. (2005)	CS	USA	Mixed	IP&OP (local)	National CVS data	936	32 449	Any Physical Sexual	NR	11.8 (9.9–14.0)^e15.0 (12.5–18.1)^e17.1 (10.6–27.7)^e	6
Tsigebrhan et al. (2014)	CS	Ethiopia	Mixed	OP (local)	OP (local)	200	200	Any Sexual	4.0 (1.9–8.3) 2.5 (0.49–13.2)	2.2 (0.95–5.1)^fNR	7

^a Weighted by demographics (sex, age, ethnicity) and education; matched by region.

^b Adjusted for demographics (sex, age, ethnicity, marital status), SES (employment, housing tenure), area deprivation.

^c Adjusted for demographics (sex, age, ethnicity), SES, violence perpetration, area characteristics.

^d Adjusted for demographics (sex, co-habiting), SES (family SES, education, employment), violence perpetration.

^e Weighted by demographics (sex, age, ethnicity), income; matched for city.

^f Adjusted for demographics (sex, age, marital status), SES (education, income, employment), substance misuse.

CS: cross-sectional; CVS: Crime Victimization Survey; NR: not reported.

Figure 4. Meta-analysis: prevalence of any or physical domestic violence (perpetrated by partner or family member).

Figure 5. Meta-analysis: prevalence of sexual violence, stratified by gender where data available.

Figure 6. Meta-analysis: crude OR for sexual victimization in people with compared with those without SMI.

Table 5. Meta-analyses of crude ORs for the association between risk factors and victimization.

Risk domain	n studies	n peoplewith SMI	n victims	Random effectspooled OR (95% CI)	p	I^2
Demographic	18
Sex (F vs M)	16	10 181	1826	1.1 (0.9–1.4)	.31	72
Younger age	5	2313	540	0.98 (0.97–1.0)	.11	77
Ethnic minority	7	4464	838	1.2 (1.0–1.5)	.003	31
Social	11
Socio-economic^a	9	4812	923	1.1 (0.81–1.5)	.56	77
Socio-economic: unemployment	6	3487	787	1.0 (0.75–1.4)	.10	62
Social contact^b	3	1532	433	1.0 (0.5–2.1)	.93	87
Homelessness	10	6381	1219	2.6 (2.1–3.2)	<.001	15
Area of residence (urban vs rural)^c	2	1001	64	NA	–	–
Substance misuse^d	8	6302	1151	2.4 (1.8–3.0)	<.001	63
Substance misuse: current	5	2544	352	3.0 (1.7–5.4)	<.001	69
Substance misuse: lifetime	5	5015	1064	2.2 (1.7–2.8)	<.001	61
Violence perpetration (recent)	5	4663	729	4.4 (2.5–7.6)	<.001	84
Clinical	11
Diagnosis (SZ vs. affective)	7	2335	574	0.94 (0.74–1.2)	.61	28
Co-morbid PD^e	2	963	173	NA	–	–
Illness severity^f	7	4981	954	1.7 (1.1–2.5)	<.01	81
Illness severity: admissions history	5	33 878	636	1.5 (0.90–2.5)	.12	85
Symptom cluster^g	6	2532	496	1.2 (1.0–1.4)	.01	79
Symptom cluster: positive symptoms	3	1570	324	1.0 (0.98–1.1)	.35	0
Childhood abuse^h	1	782	274	NA	–	–

^a Socio-economic: includes two studies on educational attainment, one on poverty, and six on unemployment.

^b Social contact: includes two studies on any social contact and one study on contact with family members.

^c Urban residence: Two studies reported no association: Hiday reported a crude OR of 1.5 (CI = 0.6–3.6) and Honkonen reported a crude OR of 0.5 (CI = 0.2–1.1).

^d Substance misuse: includes five studies on lifetime abuse (three any, one drugs, one alcohol) and five studies on current misuse (two any, two drugs, one alcohol).

^e Co-morbid personality disorder: Dean reported a positive association (crude OR = 6.2, CI = 3.8–10.3), whilst Hiday reported no association (crude OR = 0.4, CI = 0.2–1.0).

^f Illness severity: includes one study on impaired function, one study on early illness onset and five studies on admission.

^g Symptoms cluster: includes one study on disorganization, two on manic symptoms, and three on positive symptoms.

^h Goodman reported positive association with childhood physical abuse (crude OR = 2.8, CI = 2.1–3.9) and childhood sexual abuse (crude OR = 1.9, CI = 1.6–3.5). Morgan reported a ‘significant’ crude association with childhood abuse, but did not report ORs.

NA, not applicable (meta-analysis not carried out as less than three studies investigated the given risk factor).

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