Childhood gender-typed behaviour, sexual orientation, childhood abuse and post-traumatic stress disorder: a prospective birth-cohort study

Figures & data

Table 1. Separate effects for males and females for the association between gender-typed behaviour and abuse and PTSD symptoms.

		Parent-rated gender-typed behaviour			Self-reported gender-typed behaviour
		30 months	42 months	57 months	8 years
Outcomes	β (95% CI’s)
PTSD	Females	.93*	.48	.35	−.15
		(−.34, 1.10)	(−.24, 1.20)	(−.37, 1.06)	(−.71, .41)
	Males	.38	.53	.13	.05
		(−.34, 1.10)	(−.15, 1.23)	(−.54, .79)	(−.57, .67)
Mother-reported abuse before 11 y	Females	003**	.002**	.002*	.0001
		(.001, .005)	(.001, .004)	(.0002, .003)	(−.001, .001)
	Males	.0004	.001	.001	.001
		(−.001, .002)	(−.0005, .002)	(−.001, .002)	(−.001, .002)
Self-reported physical/psychological abuse before 17 y (reported at 22 y)	Females	.04*	04*	.03	.01
		(.01, .08)	(.01, .07)	(−.004, .06)	(−.01, .04)
	Males	−.02	−.01	−.03	−.01
		(−.06, .03)	(−.05, .03)	(−.07, .01)	(−.05, .02)
	OR (95% CI’s)
Self-reported sexual abuse before 17 y (reported at 22 y)	Females	1.21*	1.26**	1.22*	1.10
		(1.02, 1.44)	(1.08, 1.47)	(1.04, 1.42)	(.98, 1.23)
	Males	1.43	1.22	1.55	1.19
		(.85, 2.43)	(.78, 1.91)	(.92, 2.61)	(.81, 1.75)

*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001. Effects represent the associations separately for males and females once the interaction term between sex and gender-typed behaviour was added (see Appendix 5, Model 2). Higher scores on gender-typed behaviour measures reflect more nonconforming behaviour.

Table 2. Separate effects for males and females for the association between sexual orientation at 15 years and abuse and PTSD symptoms.

		PTSD symptoms 23 years^a	Abuse
			Mother-reported^a	Self-reported physical/psychological^a	Self-reported sexual^b
Predictor
Sexual orientation	Females	β = 4.25**	β = .004	β = .22***	OR = 2.61***
		(1.73, 6.78)	(−.001, .009)	(.11, .32)	(1.76, 3.86)
	Males	β = 2.46	β = .008*	β = .03	OR = 9.35***
		(−.18, 5.11)	(.0002, .016)	(−.09, .15)	(4.09, 21.35)

*p < .05 **p < .01 ***p < .001. Effects represent the associations separately for males and females once the interaction term between sex and sexual orientation was added (see Appendix 6.1, Model 2). Higher scores on gender-typed behaviour measures reflect more nonconforming behaviour. Sexual Orientation: 0 = heterosexual, 1 = sexual minority. ^aLinear regression; ^bBinary logistic regression.

Table 3. Separate effects for males and females for the association between gender-typed behaviour and sexual orientation at 15 years.

		Parent-rated gender-typed behaviour			Self-reported gender-typed behaviour
		30 months	42 months	57 months	8 years
Predictor	OR (95% CI’s)
Sexual orientation	Females	1.37***	1.47***	1.29***	1.10
		(1.19, 1.59)	(1.28, 1.68)	(1.13, 1.47)	(.99, 1.22)
	Males	1.34**	1.57***	1.87***	1.23**
		(1.09, 1.66)	(1.30, 1.90)	(1.56, 2.26)	(1.09, 1.38)

*p < .05 **p < .01 ***p < .001. Effects represent the associations separately for males and females once the interaction term between sex gender-typed behaviour was added (see Appendix 6.2, Model 2). Higher scores on gender-typed behaviour measures reflect more nonconforming behaviour. Sexual Orientation: 0 = heterosexual, 1 = sexual minority.

Figure 1. SEM for the effect of gender-typed behaviour at 30 months on PTSD symptoms in females, mediated by self-reported physical/psychological abuse and mother-reported abuse. Indicators are shown on latent variables using dashed arrows. Curved arrows show covariances between errors. Path estimates are standardised beta coefficients. P-values are shown in brackets.

Figure 2. SEM for the effect of gender-typed behaviour at 30 months on PTSD symptoms at 23 years in females, mediated by self-reported physical/psychological abuse and mother-reported abuse, adjusted for sexual orientation. Indicators are shown on latent variables using dashed arrows. Curved arrows show covariances between errors. Path estimates are standardised beta coefficients. P-values are shown in brackets.

Table

	Females	Males	Test results
Mother-reported Abuse (8 m − 11 y), n (%)
Sexually abused by anyone
Yes	36 (1.2%)	12 (0.4%)	X^2(1) = 13.19, p < .001***
No	2,951 (98.8%)	3,109 (99.6%)
Physically hurt by anyone
Yes	541 (16.9%)	833 (24.0%)	X^2(1) = 50.41, p < .001***
No	2,652 (83.1%)	2,640 (76.0%)
Physical cruelty from mother/father
Yes	113 (3.8%)	166 (5.5%)	X^2(1) = 9.72, p = .002**
No	2,840 (96.2%)	2,834 (94.5%)
Emotional cruelty from mother/father
Yes	458 (12.8%)	492 (12.8%)	X^2(1) = .01, p = .926
No	3,134 (87.2%)	3,345 (87.2%)
Self-reported Sexual Abuse ^a
Before 11 years, n (%)
Were you touched in a sexual way by an adult or older child or were you forced to touch an adult or older child/teenager in a sexual way
No	2,417 (95.4%)	1,323 (98.5%)
Yes, once	66 (2.6%)	9 (0.7%)
Yes, more than once	50 (2.0%)	11 (0.8%)
Did an older child/teenager force you or attempt to force you into any sexual activity by threatening you or holding you down or hurting you in some way when you did not want to
No	2,489 (98.2%)	1,335 (99.5%)
Yes, once	25 (1.0%)	2 (0.1%)
Yes, more than once	21 (0.8%)	5 (0.4%)
Any self-reported sexual abuse before 11 years
No	2,406 (95.2%)	1,319 (98.4%)	X^2(1) = 25.69, p < .001***
Yes	121 (4.8%)	21 (1.6%)
Between 11 and 17 years, n (%)
Were you touched in a sexual way by an adult or older child or were you forced to touch an adult or older child/teenager in a sexual way
No	2,342 (92.4%)	1,317 (98.4%)
Yes, once	99 (3.9%)	10 (0.7%)
Yes, more than once	94 (3.7%)	12 (0.9%)
Did an older child/teenager force you or attempt to force you into any sexual activity by threatening you or holding you down or hurting you in some way when you did not want to
No	2,411 (95.3%)	1,337 (99.8%)
Yes, once	71 (2.8%)	2 (0.1%)
Yes, more than once	48 (1.9%)	2 (0.1%)
Any self-reported sexual abuse between 11 and 17 years
No	2,310 (91.6%)	1,314 (98.4%)	X^2(1) = 70.04, p < .001***
Yes	212 (8.4%)	22 (1.6%)
Any Self-reported Sexual Abuse before 17 years
No	2,217 (88.7%)	1,288 (97.1%)	X^2(1) = 80.57, p < .001***
Yes	283 (11.3%)	38 (2.9%)
Self-reported Physical/Psychological Abuse ^b
Before 11 years (M (SD))
Q1: Shout at you	1.65 (0.88)	1.63 (0.85)	t(3,901) = −.90, p = .368
Q2: Say hurtful or insulting things to you	0.60 (0.94)	0.45 (0.76)	t(3,897) = −5.15, p < .001***
Q3: Push, grab or shove you	0.31 (0.72)	0.39 (0.70)	t(3,896) = 3,41, p < .001***
Q4: Smack you for discipline	0.86 (0.90)	0.95 (0.87)	t(3,892)= 2.97, p = .003**
Q5: Punish you in a way that seemed cruel	0.26 (0.70)	0.31 (0.70)	t(3,893) = 2.15, p = .031 *
Q6: Threaten to kick, punch, or hit you with something that could hurt you or physically attack you in another way	0.17 (0.59)	0.19 (0.59)	t(3,896) = .91, p = .362
Q7: Actually kick, punch, or hit you with something that could hurt you or physically attack you in another way	0.11 (0.49)	0.11 (0.46)	t(3,892) = −.03, p = .978
Q8: Hit you so hard it left you with bruises or marks	0.12 (0.48)	0.09 (0.40)	t(3,874) = −1.60, p = .109
Between 11 and 17 years (M (SD))
Q1: Shout at you	1.47 (0.96)	1.37 (0.89)	t(3,892) = −3.26, p = .001**
Q2: Say hurtful or insulting things to you	0.71 (1.00)	0.54 (0.83)	t(3,885) = −5.29, p < .001***
Q3: Push, grab or shove you	0.27 (0.70)	0.30 (0.65)	t(3,885) = 1.08, p = .279
Q4: Smack you for discipline	0.25 (0.65)	0.29 (0.64)	t(3,885) =1.49, p = .138
Q5: Punish you in a way that seemed cruel	0.21 (0.66)	0.21 (0.60)	t(3,888) = −.16, p = .875
Q6: Threaten to kick, punch, or hit you with something that could hurt you or physically attack you in another way	0.16 (0.58)	0.17 (0.55)	t(3,886) = .48, p = .635
Q7: Actually kick, punch, or hit you with something that could hurt you or physically attack you in another way	0.11 (0.49)	0.10 (0.40)	t(3,883) = −.84, p = .403
Q8: Hit you so hard it left you with bruises or marks	0.10 (0.47)	0.07 (0.34)	t(3,868) = −2.37, p = .018*

*(p < .05) **(p < .01) ***(p < .001).

^a Adapted from the Sexual Experiences Survey (Koss & Gidycz, 1985).

^b Adapted from the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (Bernstein et al., 2003).

Table

	Females (n = 7,148)	Males (n = 7,536)
Ethnicity	1,293 (18.1)	1,314 (17.4)
Mother’s highest level of education	1,144 (16.0)	1,128 (15.0)
Sexual orientation (15.5 years)	4,469 (62.5)	5,174 (68.7)
Parent-rated gender-typed behaviour ^a
30 months	2,536 (35.5)	2,514 (33.4)
42 months	2,314 (32.4)	2,338 (31.0)
57 months	2,784 (38.9)	2,847 (37.8)
Self-rated gender-typed behaviour ^b
8.5 years	3,573 (50.0)	4,047 (53.7)
PTSD score ^c
23 years	4,684 (65.5)	6,230 (82.7)
Mother-reported abuse
Sexually abused by anyone	4,161 (58.2)	4,415 (58.6)
Physically hurt by anyone	3,955 (55.3)	4,063 (53.9)
Physical cruelty from mother/father	4,195 (58.7)	4,536 (60.2)
Emotional cruelty from mother/father	3,556 (49.7)	3,699 (49.1)
Self-reported sexual abuse ^d
Before 11 years
Q1: Were you touched in a sexual way by an adult or older child or were you forced to touch an adult or older child/teenager in a sexual way	4,615 (64.6)	6,193 (82.2)
Q2: Did an older child/teenager force you or attempt to force you into any sexual activity by threatening you or holding you down or hurting you in some way when you did not want to	4,613 (64.5)	6,194 (82.2)
Between 11 and 17 years
Q1: Were you touched in a sexual way by an adult or older child or were you forced to touch an adult or older child/teenager in a sexual way	4,613 (64.5)	6,197 (82.2)
Q2: Did an older child/teenager force you or attempt to force you into any sexual activity by threatening you or holding you down or hurting you in some way when you did not want to	4,618 (64.6)	6,195 (82.2)
Self-reported physical/psychological abuse ^e
Before 11 years
Q1: Shout at you	4,593 (64.3)	6,188 (82.1)
Q2: Say hurtful or insulting things to you	4,596 (64.3)	6,189 (82.1)
Q3: Push, grab or shove you	4,595 (64.3)	6,191 (82.2)
Q4: Smack you for discipline	4,598 (64.3)	6,192 (82.2)
Q5: Punish you in a way that seemed cruel	4,599 (64.3)	6,190 (82.1)
Q6: Threaten to kick, punch, or hit you with something that could hurt you or physically attack you in another way	4,595 (64.3)	6,191 (82.2)
Q7: Actually kick, punch, or hit you with something that could hurt you or physically attack you in another way	4,599 (64.3)	6,191 (82.2)
Q8: Hit you so hard it left you with bruises or marks	4,608 (64.5)	6,200 (82.3)
Between 11 and 17 years
Q1: Shout at you	4,598 (64.3)	6,192 (82.2)
Q2: Say hurtful or insulting things to you	4,602 (64.4)	6,195 (82.2)
Q3: Push, grab or shove you	4,603 (64.4)	6,194 (82.2)
Q4: Smack you for discipline	4,603 (64.4)	6,194 (82.2)
Q5: Punish you in a way that seemed cruel	4,602 (64.4)	6,192 (82.2)
Q6: Threaten to kick, punch, or hit you with something that could hurt you or physically attack you in another way	4,604 (64.4)	6,192 (82.2)
Q7: Actually kick, punch, or hit you with something that could hurt you or physically attack you in another way	4,606 (64.4)	6,193 (82.2)
Q8: Hit you so hard it left you with bruises or marks	4,616 (64.6)	6,198 (82.2)

^a Score on Pre-School Activities Inventory (PSAI; Golombok & Rust, 1993).

^b Score on Childhood Activities Inventory (CAI; Golombok et al., 2008).

^c Score on PTSD Checklist (PCL-5; Weathers et al., 2013).

^d Adapted from the Sexual Experiences Survey (Koss & Gidycz, 1985).

^e Adapted from the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (Bernstein et al., 2003).

Table

	Females	Males	Test results
Ethnicity, n (%)
White	5,561 (95.0%)	5,907 (94.9%)	X^2 (1) =.01, p = .917
Non-white	294 (5.0%)	315 (5.1%)
Mother’s highest level of education, n (%)
Below O Level	1,778 (29,6%)	1,950 (30.4%)	X^2 (2) =1.24, p = .539
O Level	2,078 (34.6%)	2,216 (34.6%)
A Level and above	2,148 (35.8%)	2,242 (35.0%)
Sexual Orientation (15.5 years), n (%)
Heterosexual	2,311 (86.3%)	2,157 (91.3%)	X^2 (1) = 33.91, p < .001***
Non-heterosexual	368 (13.7%)	205 (8.7%)
Parent-rated gender-typed behaviour^a
30 months, M(SD)	40.79 (8.54)	60.82 (8.31)	t(9,632) = 116.63, p < .001***
42 months, M(SD)	36.98 (9.31)	62.43 (8.64)	t(10,030 = 142.03, p < .001***
57 months, M(SD)	35.09 (9.38)	64.32 (8.78)	t(9,051) = 153.11, p < .001***
Self-rated gender-typed behaviour^b
8.5 years, M(SD)	40.03 (12.42)	59.86 (11.48)	t(7,062) = 69.65, p < .001***
PTSD Score^c
23 Years, M(SD)	7.21 (14.48)	3.47 (9.74)	t(3,768) = −8.40, p < .001***
Traumatic events included in PTSD Scale, %(n)
Serious accident or fire
Yes	178 (6.9%)	137 (9.9%)	X^2(1) = 11.55, p = .001**
No	2,412 (93.1%)	1,242 (90.1%)
Physically attacked, threated with weapon, or violent crime
Yes	234 (9.0%)	268 (19.4%)	X^2(1) = 88.27, p < .001***
No	2,356 (91.0%)	1,110 (80.6%)
Sexual assault
Yes	322 (12.5%)	25 (1.8%)	X^2(1) = 127.32, p < .001**
No	2,261(87.5%)	1,351 (98.2%)
Witnessed a sudden violent death
Yes	124 (4.8%)	87 (6.3%)	X^2(1) = 4.20, p = .040*
No	2,462(95.2%)	1,287 (93.7%)
Sudden unexpected death of a loved one
Yes	683 (26.4%)	274 (19.9%)	X^2(1) = 20.99, p < .001***
No	1,900 (73.6%)	1,103 (80.1%)
Any other traumatic event
Yes	564 (22.0%)	209 (15.3%)	X^2(1) = 25.38, p < .001***
No	1,995 (78.0%)	1,155 (84.7%)
Respondent’s worst traumatic event involved (for those experiencing a traumatic event) %(n)
Witnessing or experiencing actual/threatened death, serious injury or sexual violation
Yes	373 (32.8%)	159 (29.7%)	X^2(1) = 1.63, p = .202
No	765 (67.2%)	377 (70.3%)
Learning of a loved one dying violently or accidentally
Yes	301 (26.4%)	113 (20.9%)	X^2 (1) = 6.01, p = .014*
No	837 (73.6%)	427 (79.1%)

*(p < .05) **(p < .01) ***(p < .001).

^a Score on Pre-School Activities Inventory (PSAI; Golombok & Rust, 1993) before joint sex standardisation – Higher scores reflect more masculine-typed behaviour. ^b Score on Childhood Activities Inventory (CAI; Golombok et al., 2008) before joint sex standardisation – Higher scores reflect more masculine-typed behaviour. ^c Score on PTSD Checklist (PCL-5; Weathers et al., 2013).

Table

			Covariate	Gender-typed behaviour ^a				Abuse
			Mother’s highest education	30 months	42 months	57 months	8.5 years	Self-reported physical/ psychological	Mother- reported
All	Gender-typed behaviour ^a	30 months	.100***	–
		42 months	.070***	.627***	–
		57 months	.051***	.510***	.677***	–
		8.5 years	.027*	.113***	.163***	.217***	–
	Abuse	Self-reported physical/ psychological	−.036***	.012	.016	.004	.003	–
		Mother-reported	−.026**	.031**	.037***	.032**	.009	.059***	–
	PTSD	23 years	−.062***	.046*	.015	.003	−.016	.236***	.066***
Females	Gender-typed behaviour ^a	30 months	.066***	–
		42 months	.051***	.636***	–
		57 months	.074***	.523***	.687***	–
		8.5 years	.053**	.142***	.198***	.265***	–
	Abuse	Self-reported physical/ psychological	−.043***	.033*	.035*	.022	.011	–
		Mother-reported	−.032*	.062***	.055***	.048**	.001	.072***	–
	PTSD	23 years	−.059**	.051*	.027	.019	−.018	.251***	.065**
Males	Gender-typed behaviour ^a	30 months	.131***	–
		42 months	.090***	.631***	–
		57 months	.029*	.507***	.666***	–
		8.5 years	−.001	.084***	.123***	.159***	–
	Abuse	Self-reported	−.028*	−.019	−.014	−.024	−.011	–
		Mother-reported	−.020	.008	.018	.015	.016	.047***	–
	PTSD	PTSD	−.043	.018	.039	.005	.009	.193***	.089**

(*p < .05 **p < .01 ***p < .001) ^a Standardised such that higher scores reflect more nonconforming gender-typed behaviour. Results shown are r (p-value).

Table

		Parent-rated gender-typed behaviour						Self-reported gender-typed behaviour
		30 months		42 months		57 months		8 years
	β (95% CI’s)	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2
Outcomes	Predictors
PTSD ^a	Gender-typed behaviour	.75*	.93*	.50	.48	.28	.35	−.09	−.15
		(.17, 1.32)	(.15, 1.71)	(−.04, 1.04)	(−.24, 1.20)	(−.26, .81)	(−.37, 1.06)	(−.53, .35)	(−.71, .41)
	Sex	−3.59***	−3.56***	−.65**	−3.73***	−3.69***	−3.77***	−3.64***	−3.64***
		(−4.36, −2.81)	(−4.34, −2.79)	(−1.04, −.26)	(−4.55, −2.91)	(−4.47, −2.91)	(−4.66, −2.89)	(−4.42, −2.86)	(−4.42, −2.87)
	Sex *Gender-typed behaviour		−.55		.06		−.22***		.20
			(−1.60, .51)		(−.94, 1.05)		(−1.20, .76)		(−.64, 1.03)
Mother-reported abuse before 11 y^a	Gender-typed behaviour	.002**	.003**	.001**	.002**	.001*	.002*	.0003,	.0001
		(.0003, .003)	(.001, .005)	(.0004, .002)	(.001, .004)	(.0002, .002)	(.0002, .003)	(−.0005, .001)	(−.001, .001)
	Sex	.003**	.003**	.003**	.002**	.003**	.002*	.003**	.003**
		(.001, .005)	(.001, .005)	(.001, .004)	(.001, .004)	(.001, .004)	(.0004, .004)	(.001, .004)	(.001, .003)
	Sex* Gender-typed behaviour		−.002*		−.001		−.001		.0004
			(−.005, −.0001)		(−.003, .001)		(−.003, .001)		(−.001, .002)
Self-reported physical/ psychological abuse before 17 y (reported at 22 y)^a	Gender-typed behaviour	.02	.04*	.02	.04*	.01	.03	.004	.01
		(−.01, .05)	(.01, .08)	(−.002, .05)	(.01, .07)	(−.02, .03)	(−.004, .06)	(−.02, .03)	(−.01, .04)
	Sex	.01	.01	.003	−.007	.01	−.02	.01	.01
		(−.03, .05)	(−.03, .05)	(−.04, .04)	(−.05, .03)	(−.03, .05)	(−.06, .03)	(−.03, .05)	(.03, .05)
	Sex* Gender-typed behaviour		−.06*		−.05*		−.06*		−.02
			(−.12, −.01)		(−.10, −.003)		(−.11, −.01)		(−.06, .02)
	OR (95% CI’s)
Self-reported sexual abuse before 17 y (reported at 22 y)^b	Gender-typed behaviour	1.24**	1.21*	1.25**	1.26**	1.25**	1.22*	1.11	1.10
		(1.05, 1.46)	(1.02, 1.44)	(1.08, 1.45)	(1.08, 1.47)	(1.08, 1.45)	(1.04, 1.42)	(.99, 1.24)	(.98, 1.23)
	Sex	.25***	.24**	.22***	.22***	.22***	.23***	.20***	.20***
		(.17, .37)	(.16, .36)	(.15, .32)	(.15, .32)	(.15, .33)	(.16, .34)	(.13, .31)	(.12, .31)
	Sex *Gender-typed behaviour		1.18		.97		1.28		1.09
			(.68, 2.06)		(.61, 1.56)		(.74, 2.20)		(.73, 1.62)

*p < .05 **p < .01 ***p < .001. Linear (^a) and binary logistic (^b) regressions with gender-typed behaviour and sex as the predictors, controlling for mother’s education and child’s ethnicity. Run with robust standard errors. Model 2 includes the addition of the interaction between sex and gender-typed behaviour (0 = Female, 1 = Male). Higher scores on gender-typed behaviour measures reflect more nonconforming behaviour. Separate effects for males and females are presented in Table 1.

Table

		PTSD symptoms 23 years^a		Abuse
	β			Mother- reported ^a		Self-reported physical/psychological^a		OR	Self-reported sexual ^b
Predictors	(95% CI’s)	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2	(95% CI’s)	Model 1	Model 2
Sexual orientation		3.72***	4.25**	.006*	.004	.16***	.22***		3.21***	2.61***
		(1.78, 5.66)	(1.73, 6.78)	(.001, .010)	(−.001, .009)	(.08, .25)	(.11, .32)		(2.23, 4.60)	(1.76, 3.86)
Sex		−3.49***	−3.30***	.003**	.003**	.01	.03		.27***	.18***
		(−4.27, −2.72)	(−4.13, −2.48)	(.001, .005)	(.001, .004)	(−.03, .05)	(−.01, .07)		(.17, .41)	(.10, .32)
Sex*Sexual orientation			−1.79		.004		−.19*			3.58**
			(−5.45, 1.87)		(−.004, .012)		(−.35, −.03)			(1.43, 8.94)

*p < .05 **p < .01 ***p < .001. Linear (^a) and binary logistic (^b) regressions with sexual orientation as the predictor, controlling for mother’s education and child’s ethnicity. Run with robust standard errors. Model 2 includes the addition of the interaction between sex and sexual orientation. (Sexual Orientation: 0 = heterosexual, 1 = sexual minority; Sex 0 = Female, 1 = Male). Numbers in brackets refer to 95% Confidence Intervals. Separate effects for males and females are presented in Table 2.

Table

		Parent-rated gender-typed behaviour						Self-reported gender-typed behaviour
		30 months		42 months		57 months		8 years
	OR (95% CI’s)	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2
Outcome	Predictors
Sexual orientation	Gender-typed behaviour	1.36***	1.37***	1.50***	1.47***	1.46***	1.29***	1.14**	1.10
		(1.21, 1.54)	(1.19, 1.59)	(1.34, 1.67)	(1.28, 1.68)	(1.31, 1.63)	(1.13, 1.47)	(1.05, 1.24)	(.99, 1.22)
	Sex	.58***	.58***	.55***	.55***	.55***	.57***	.52***	.50***
		(.47, .70)	(.47, .71)	(.45, .67)	(.45, .67)	(.45, .67)	(.46, .70)	(.42, .64)	(.41, .63)
	Sex *Gender-typed behaviour		.98		1.07		1.45**		1.11
			(.76, 1.26)		(.85, 1.35)		(1.16, 1.82)		(.95, 1.31)

*p < .05 **p < .01 ***p < .001. Binary logistic regressions with gender-typed behaviour as the predictor, controlling for sex, mother’s education and child’s ethnicity. Run with robust standard errors. Model 2 includes the addition of the interaction between sex and gender-typed behaviour. (Sexual Orientation: 0 = heterosexual, 1 = sexual minority; Sex 0 = Female, 1 = Male). Higher scores on gender-typed behaviour measures reflect more nonconforming behaviour. Separate effects for males and females are presented in Table 3.

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