Tech start-up capitalisation in an oligopolistic copyright industry: the case of the contemporary music industry

Figures & data

Table 1. Platform reintermediation in the music industry (after Langley & Leyshon, 2017, p. 16).

Domain of circulation	Platform type	Indicative platforms	Insertion of platform into multi-sided markets
Online exchange markets	Platforms which provide a marketplace for music.	Spotify Apple music Amazon music Bandcamp	These platforms have become incumbents with regards to music distribution but are subordinate to the major music corporations for the licences required to stream music.
Social media and user-generated content	Platforms which host user-generated content in the form of text, images, videos and live streaming.	Facebook, Twitter YouTube Instagram TikTok/Douyin Twitch	Social media platforms are important for the promotion and marketing of artists and users, and for the licenced used of music.
Music rights	Platforms innovating in the area of music licencing for music use in where this is problematic or not currently possible, such as content creators on social media platforms (e.g. YouTube) and live events.	Lickd Click “n” clear Jaak Blockur	Through creating solutions for the legal use of music, these platforms have the potential to capture rights income currently not being collected, offering potential revenue gain for major rights holders.
Record label-facing	Platforms innovating in the area of marketing and promotion, including social media audience development and context-aware marketing.	Landmrk Fanbytes Number Eight	These platforms provide complimentary rather that disruptive technologies and play a potential role in the corporations retaining their position as the incumbents of the music industry.
	Platforms providing a variety of management services and data services for record labels including, for example, music management platforms and data science services.	Disco Instrumental
Artist-facing	Crowdfunding platforms for donating or pledging money to artists, often in return for exclusive merchandise, experiences, and even cryptocurrencies	Kickstarter Patreon Corite Riteband Blockpool	Provide financial tools to artists to fund creativity …
	Music publishing and distribution services to assist independent artists in collecting publishing royalties and distributing their music on streaming platforms.	CDBaby Distrokid Tunecore Amuse	Independent music publishing and distribution platforms are largely not in competition with the major corporation publishing divisions and distribution networks.
	Companies producing platforms and software to assist with music and video creation.	Topline Rotor AI Music Bandlab	Support and enable artists with regards to music and video production.
	Data analytics	Audigent Next Big Sound Kworb ForTunes Viberate Soundcharts Songstats	The development of big data and other analytical tools to help record companies, management companies and artists provide insights into audiences to market more effectively.
Live music	Platforms facilitating live music performance streaming and ticketing.	Sofar Sounds Mbryonic Melody VR Dice SecondScreen	The COVID-19 pandemic has acted to accelerate innovations already underway in live music performance streaming.

Table 2. Profiles of interviewees.

Interview number	Interviewee details
1	Head of digital, major record label MusicTech incubator (London)
2	Chief marketing officer, social media start-up (London)
3	Business development manager, music management start-up (London)
4	Co-founder and CEO, music rights start-up (London)
5	Former founder and CEO, live experiences start-up (London)
6	Founder and CEO, music rights start-up (London)
7	Founder and CEO, music video start-up (London)
8	Director of policy, major record label (London)
9	Senior account manager, online artist and repertoire start-up (London)
10	Founder and CEO, independent music publisher (Liverpool)
11	Partnerships manager, social media start-up (London)
12	Co-founder and CTO, music creation start-up (London)
13	Co-founder, marketing campaigns start-up (London)
14	Former CEO, music recognition start-up (London)
15	CEO, music creation start-up (London)
16	Founder and CEO, music rights start-up (London)
17	Founder and CEO, music creation start-up (London)
18	Founder and CEO, live experiences start-up (New York)
19	Editor, music industry news and analysis publication (London)
20	Director, independent music production innovation hub (London)
21	Marketing manager, music streaming start-up (London)
22	Founder and director of product, independent record label (Stockholm)
23	CEO, governmental business region (Stockholm)
24	Founder and CEO, music investment start-up (Stockholm)
25	Commercial director, major record label (Stockholm)
26	Managing director, start-up advisory firm (Stockholm)

Langley, P., & Leyshon, A. (2017). Platform capitalism: The intermediation and capitalization of digital economic circulation. Finance and Society, 3(1), 11–31. https://doi.org/10.2218/finsoc.v3i1.1936

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