Effects of intermediate frequency electromagnetic fields: a review of animal studies

Figures & data

Figure 1. Flow diagram of research results review. Initially, 239 studies were considered and this review was limited to experimental studies investigating bio/health effect of IF-EMF on rodents (mice and rat).

Table 1. In vivo IF-EMF exposure systems.

References	Frequency	Uniformity for magnetic flux density	Numbers of cages or animals during exposure
Frölen et al. (1993)^a, Svedenstål and Holmberg (1993), Svedenstål and Johanson (1995), and Dimberg (1995)	20 kHz	±1% for 15 μT	5 cages/rack Two racks for exposure
Huuskonen et al. (1993)^a, Huuskonen et al. (1998a, 1998b), and Juutilainen et al. (1997)	20 kHz	–6% to +17% for 15 μT	4 cages
Kim et al. (2004)^a, Kim et al. (2006), Lee et al. (2006, 2007, 2009, 2010)	20 kHz	4–7% for 6.25 and 30 μT	6 cages × 2 rows
Kumari, Capstick, et al. (2017)^a, Kumari, Koivisto, et al. (2017), Kumari et al. (2018), and Herrala et al. (2018)	7.5 kHz	3.8% for 12 and 120 μT	Exact number is not provided
Nishimura et al. (2011)^a and Nishimura et al. (2012, 2016, 2019)	20 kHz 60 kHz	±3% for 100 and 200 µT	12 cages (3-row × 4 column)/rack Three racks for exposure
Win-Shwe et al. (2013)^a, Win-Shwe et al. (2015), and Ushiyama et al. (2014)^a	21 kHz	±5% for 3.8 mT	4 acrylic holders (1 rat/holder) or one rounded acryl cage with 6 divisions (for 6 mice)
Ohtani et al. (2019)^a and Ohtani et al. (2021)	82 kHz	19.7 and 25.3 mT	One acrylic holder (1 mouse in the holder)

^a The original reference for IF apparatus descriptions.

Table 2. In vivo animal studies investigating IF-EMF on toxicity.

Reference	Study subject	Frequency	Magnetic flux density	Exposure duration	Endpoint	Results
Herrala et al. (2018)	C57BL/6J mice	7.5 kHz	12 μT, peak 120 μT, peak	24 h/d, 5 weeks	Genotoxicity assays in blood: comet assay and micronuclei assay	No effect
	2-month-old male mice
	Sham (n = 9), EMF (n = 10)
Kim et al. (2006)	SD rats	20 kHz	6.25 μT	8 h/d, 5 days/week, 90 days	Body weight, organ weight	No effects
	3-week-old female and male rats				Mortality
	Sham (n = 10/sex), EMF (n = 10/sex)				Hematology parameters
					Serum biochemistry
					Urine analysis
					Pathological examination
Lee et al. (2006)	SD rats	20 kHz	6.25 μT	8 h/d, 5 days/week, 12 and 18 months	Body weight, organ weight	Increased neutrophils in 12 month-exposed female rats
	3-week-old, female, and male rats				Mortality	Decreased neutrophils in 12 month-exposed female rats
	12 month ex: Sham (n = 20/sex), EMF (n = 20/sex)				Hematology parameters	No differences in the other parameters
	18 month ex: Sham (n = 20/sex), EMF (n = 20/sex)				Serum biochemistry
					Urine analysis
					Pathological examination
Lee et al. (2010)	SD rats	20 kHz	30 μT	8 h/d, 5 days/week, 18 months	Morbidity and mortality	No effect
	3-week-old female and male rats	Triangular			Body weight, organ weight and clinical observation
	Sham (n = 20/sex), EMF (n = 20/sex)				Urine analysis
					Hematology parameters
					Serum biochemistry
					Histopathological examination
Nishimura et al. (2016)	Crl:CD (SD) rats	20 kHz	200 μT	22 h/d, 14 days or 13 weeks	Clinical observation	No effect
	5-week-old male and female rats	Sinusoidal			Hematological examination
	Sham (n = 12/sex), EMF (n = 12/sex)				Clinical chemistry examination
	(*2 replications)				Gross pathological examination and organ weight measurement
		60 kHz	100 μT		Histopathological examination
		Sinusoidal
Robertson et al. (1996)	B6C3F1 mice	10 kHz, sinusoidal	80 μT 280 μT 1000 μT	22.6 h/d, 14 days (acute) or 90 days (subchronic)	Gross and histological examination	No effect
	Male and female mice				Morbidity
	Acute: control (n = 13/sex), EMF (n = 6–7/sex/group)				Body weight
	Subchronic: control (n = 19–20/sex), EMF (n = 15/sex/group)				Clinical chemistry
					Hematology parameters
Zhao et al. (2020)	KM mice	47 kHz, wireless power transfer	270 μT, peak	5 h/d, 6 days/week, 12 weeks	The levels of immune factors, testosterone, and progesterone in blood	Increased the level of TNFα^a, IL-6b and IL-1βc and decreased the level of testosterone and progesterone
	1-month-old male and female mice Sham (n = 5/sex), EMF (n = 5/sex)				Histopathological examination in brain heart, lung kidney liver, stomach spleen, ovary and testis	Morphological changes observed in liver, spleen, ovary, and testes

The magnetic flux density was represented by rms value, but if it was a peak value, the value followed by peak.

^a TNFα: tumor necrosis factor-α.

^b IL-6: interleukin 6.

^c IL-1β: interleukin 1 beta.

Table 3. In vivo animal studies investigating IF-EMF on carcinogenicity.

Reference	Study subject	Frequency	Magnetic flux density	Exposure duration	Endpoint	Results
Lee et al. (2007)	Female SD rats for the mammary tumors	20 kHz	6.25 μT	8 h/d, 5 days/week, 16 weeks	Incidence of mammary tumor	No adverse effect
	Sham (n = 20), EMF (n = 20), DMBAb (carcinogen, n = 24), DMBA + EMF (n = 23)				Histopathological examination
	Newborn ICR mouse for the lung tumors			8 h/d, 5 days/week, 6 weeks	Incidence of lung tumor
	Sham (n = 40), EMF (n = 40), BP^c (carcinogen, n = 40), BP + EMF (n = 40)				Histopathological examination
	Female ICR mice for the skin tumors			8 h/d, 5 days/week, 19 weeks	Incidence of skin tumor
	Sham (n = 20), EMF (n = 20), DMBA(carcinogen, n = 20), DMBA + TPAd (n = 20), DMBA + TPA  + EMF (n = 20)				Histopathological examination
Lerchl et al. (2021)	CD-1 IGS mouse	20 kHz	360 μT	24 h/d, 7 days/week, max 13 months (behavioral test at 10 months)	Body mass	Higher levels of alertness in open field test
	3-month-old female mice				Tumor incidence	No differences in the other parameters
	Sham (n = 80), EMF (n = 80)				Behavioral changes in 8 arm radial maze, rotarod and open field tests
Nishimura et al. (2019)	CByB6F1-Tg (HRAS)2Jic mice	20 kHz	200 μT	22 h/d, 26 weeks	Morbidity	No adverse effect
	6-week-old male and female mice	Sinusoidal			Clinical observation
	Sham (n = 25/sex) EMF (n = 25/sex)				Body weight
	MNUe (carcinogen, n = 10/sex)				Tumor incidence
	(*2 replications)				Gross pathology and organ weight
					Histopathology
Svedenstål and Holmberg (1993)	CBA/S mice	20 kHz, sawtooth PMF, pulsed vertical	15 μT, peak	Lifetime exposure (max 131 weeks in control group)	Hematological parameters	No adverse effect
	40-day-old female mice				Incidence of lymphoma
	Control (n = 47)
	PMF^a (n = 53)
	5.24 Gy of X-ray (n = 64)
	5.24 Gy of X-ray + PMF (n = 63)

The magnetic flux density was represented by rms value, but if it was a peak value, the value followed by peak.

^a PMF: pulsed magnetic field.

^b DMBA: 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene.

^c BP: benzo[a]pyrene.

^d TPA: tetradecanoylphorbolester.

^e MNU: N-methyl-N-nitrosourea.

Table 4. In vivo animal studies investigating IF-EMF on fetus.

Reference	Study subject	Frequency	Magnetic flux density	Exposure duration	Endpoint	Results
Chiang et al. (1995)	Swiss Webster mouse	15.6 kHz	40 μT, peak	4 h/d, G6b–G17 Ara-C injection at G9	Number of malformations in fetuses	No adverse effect on fetuses in EMF alone exposed group
	Con (n = 24, pregnant)	Sawtooth			Body mass and length of living fetuses
	EMF (n = 21, pregnant)					Increased cleft palate and/or cleft lip in the combination of EMF and Ara-C group than the Ara-C group
	Ara-C^a (n = 22, pregnant)
	EMF + Ara-C (n = 22, pregnant)
Dawson et al. (1998)	Wistar rats	10.8 kHz	95 μT 240 μT 950 μT	20–23.5 h/d	Dam: Weight gain, litter size, implantation sites, resorptions, blood chemistry and hematology	No adverse effect
	Set I: pregnant rats (n = 14–16/group, 4 groups) Set II: male rats (n = 5/group, 4 groups)	Sinusoidal		Set I: G0–G22 Set II: 30–72 days before mating	Fetus: deaths, weight, sex, external and internal morphology, skeletal abnormalities, histology, hematology
	Set III: female rats (n = 16–17/group, 4 groups)			Set III: 45–58 days before mating	Adult male: body weight, clinical signs, mortality, hematology, clinical chemistry, gross pathology at necropsy, reproductive organ weights and histology
					Adult female: estrous cycle, ovulation, weight gain
Dimberg (1995)	C57/B1 mice	20 kHz	15 μT, peak	24 h/d, G1–G19	Brain weights	Decrease in the whole brain weight on PD308
	Sham (n = 15, pregnant) EMF (n = 15, pregnant)	Asymmetric sawtooth			Concentration of protein, DNA, AChEc, NGFd, CNPe at PD1f, PD21, PD308	Decrease in DNA level and increase in the activities of CNP, AChE, and NGF protein in the cortex region on PD21
						Reduction of the amount of DNA in cerebellum but enhanced CNP activity in cortex on PD308.
Frölen et al. (1993)	CBA/S mice	20 kHz	15 μT, peak	24 h/d, G1–G19	Number of implants, placental resorptions, living fetuses, dead fetuses	Increased placental resorption rate in all IF EMF exposed groups, except G7–G19 exposed group.
	G1–G19: sham (mated n = 173, pregnant n = 154), EMF (mated n = 245, pregnant n = 211)	Pulsed			Number of malformations in living and dead fetuses	Reduced body mass and length in G7–G19 exposed group.
	G1–G19: sham (mated n = 127, pregnant n = 111), EMF (mated n = 172, pregnant n = 142)				Body mass and length of living fetuses	Increased dead fetuses in G1–G19 exposed group.
	G2–G19: sham (mated n = 114, pregnant n = 99), EMF (mated n = 136, pregnant n = 117) G5–G19: sham (mated n = 109, pregnant n = 98), EMF (mated n = 147, pregnant n = 137)
	G7–G19: sham (mated n = 85, pregnant n = 81), EMF (mated n = 103, pregnant n = 100)
Huuskonen et al. (1993)	Wistar rat	20 kHz	15 μT, peak	24 h/d, G0–G20	Number of malformations in fetuses	No increased malformations or resorption Increased minor skeletal abnormalities
	Sham (n = 72, pregnant)	Sawtooth			Body mass and length of living fetuses
	EMF (n = 72, pregnant)
Huuskonen et al. (1998a)	CBA/S mouse	20 kHz	15 μT, peak	24 h/d, G0–G18	Hematological parameters	No adverse effect
	Phase 1: sham (mated n = 60, pregnant n = 46), MF (mated n = 59, pregnant n = 46)	Sawtooth			Micronuclei analysis
					Measurement of corpora lutea
	Phase 2: sham (mated n = 42, pregnant n = 34), MF (mated n = 43, pregnant n = 40)
Huuskonen et al. (1998b)	CBA/Ca mice	20 kHz, sawtooth	15 μT, peak	24 h/d, G0–G18	Body weight, skeletal variations, number of implementation sites and living fetuses	No increased malformations or resorption
	Pregnant mice control (n = 45), EMF (n = 56)				Hematology and bone marrow analysis of maternal mice	Increased fetuses with at least 3 skeletal variations in all IF EMF
Juutilainen et al. (1997)	Pregnant CBA/Ca mice	20 kHz, pulsed	15 μT, peak	24 h/d, G0–G18	Body weight, skeletal variations, number of implementation sites and living fetuses	No effect on the resorption rate in CBA/Ca mice.
	Control (n = 41), EMF (n = 53)
	Pregnant CBA/S mice					Increased resorption rate in CBA/s mice compared to control group.
	Control (n = 75), EMF (n = 84)
Kim et al. (2004)	ICR mice	20 kHz	6.25 μT	8 h/d, G2.5–G15.5	Number of implantation, resorptions, sex, death and living fetuses	No adverse effect
	Pregnant mice	Sawtooth			Body mass and size of fetuses
	Sham (n = 18), EMF (n = 16)				Incidence of external, visceral and skeletal malformations
Kumari, Capstick, et al. (2017)	C57BL/6J mice	7.5 kHz	12 μT, peak 120 μT, peak	24 h/d, 5 weeks	Body and organ weight. Sperm motility and sperm counts, morphological analysis	No adverse effect on fertility indicators
	8-week-old male mice					Increased sperm motility in 120 μT group.
	Sham (n = 30), EMF (n = 20)
	(*combined 3 cohorts)
Lee et al. (2009)	ICR mice	20 kHz	30 μT	8 h/d, G2.5–G15.5	Number of implantation, resorptions, death and living fetuses	No adverse effect
	Pregnant mice: sham (n = 11), EMF (n = 10)	Triangular waves			Body mass and size of fetuses
	EMF (n = 10)				Incidence of external, visceral and skeletal malformations
Nishimura et al. (2011)	Crl:CD (SD) rats	20 kHz	200 μT	22 h/d, G7–G17	Number of implantation, resorptions, sex, death and living fetuses	No adverse effect
	Pregnant rats				Body mass and size of fetuses
	Sham (n = 25), EMF (n = 25)	60 kHz	100 μT		Incidence of external, visceral and skeletal malformations
	(*2 replications)				Clinical signs and gross pathology
Nishimura et al. (2012)	Crl:CD (SD) rats	20 kHz	200 μT	22 h/d, 14 d prior to mating, during mating, until G7	Gross observations in mated rats	No adverse effect
	Sham (n = 24), EMF (n = 24)	Sinusoidal			Number of live fetuses, dead fetuses, implantation sites, resorptions
	(*2 replications)				Weight of testes and epididymis
		60 kHz	100 μT		Sperm motility
		Sinusoidal			Histopathology of epididymis
Stuchly et al. (1988)	SD rat	18 kHz	5.7 μT, peak 23 μT, peak	7 h/d, 2 weeks prior to and throughout pregnancy	Hematological parameters and differential counts of bone marrow of dams	A significant decrease in maternal lymphocyte count for 66 µT but within the normal range
	Sham (n = 26)	Sawtooth	66 μT, peak		Weight of dams, fetuses and placentas
	EMF (n = 26)				Number of resorptions and pups
					Fetal abnormalities
Svedenstål and Johanson (1995)	CBA/S mice	20 kHz	15 μT, peak	24 h/d G1–G5.5 or G1–G7	Number of implants, placental resorptions, living fetuses, dead fetuses	Decreased in the length and body weight of living embryos exposed for 5.5 days
	G1–G5.5: sham (n = 114 mated, n = 100 pregnant), EMF (n = 125 mated, n = 113 pregnant)	Sawtooth			Number of malformations in living and dead fetuses	Elevation in the level of progesterone on day 3 and calcium on day 13 in exposed dams, respectively
	G1–G7: sham (n = 126 mated, n = 103 pregnant), EMF (n = 132 mated, n = 120 pregnant)				Body mass and length of living fetuses
					Implantation time
					Progesterone and calcium level of dams
Wiley et al. (1992)	CD-1 mouse	20 kHz	3.6 μT, peak 17 μT, peak 200 μT, peak	20–21 h/d, G1–G18	Body weights of dams	No adverse effect
	Sham (mated n = 185, pregnant n = 141)	sawtooth			Percentage of pregnancy
	EMF (mated n = 186/group, pregnant each n = 151, 163, 144)				Number of implantations, fetal deaths, and resorptions
	(*4 replications)				Number of gross external visceral and skeletal malformations
					Body weights of fetuses

The magnetic flux density was represented by rms value, but if it was a peak value, the value followed by peak.

^a Ara-C: cytosine arabinoside (a teratogen).

^b G: gestation.

^c AChE: acetylcholine esterase.

^d NGF: nerve growth factor.

^e CNP: 2′,3′-cyclic nucleotide 3′-phosphodiesterase.

^f PD: postnatal day,

Table 5. Other in vivo animal studies investigating bioeffects of IF-EMF.

Reference	Study subject	Frequency	Magnetic flux density	Exposure duration	Endpoint	Results
de Kleijn et al. (2016)	Balb/c mouse	ELF/IF-EMF signal contained multiple frequencies (20–5000 Hz)	10 μT	1, 4, and 24 h/day, 1 week or 15 weeks	Immune phenotyping of blood cells	Increased numbers of neutrophils and CD4+ lymphocytes in the 24 h-exposed group
	6 week-old male mice 4 groups; sham (n = 12)				qPCR	Significantly lower in POMC expression and plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone.
	Short-term EMF (n = 12)				ELISA
	Long-term EMF (n = 20)
Juutilainen et al. (1988)	KM rat (susceptibility to audiogenic seizures)	10 kHz, 28 kHz, sinusoidal	1.254 μT	1 h	Strength and duration of seizures, seizure latency	No effects
	1-year-old female rats	100 Hz
	Sham (n = 16), EMF (n = 16)
Kumari, Koivisto, et al. (2017)	C57BL/6J mice	7.5 kHz	12 μT, peak 120 μT, peak	24 h/d, 5 weeks	Behavioral tests: spontaneous exploratory activity, rotarod, marble burying, isolation-induced aggression, Morris swim task, passive avoidance	Mild impairment of learning and memory performance was observed in Morris swim task and the passive avoidance task in the group exposing over 48 h of 120 μT IF EMF
	Male mice sham (n = 20), EMF (n = 20/magnetic flux density)				q-PCR for BDNF, TNFα	Increased expression of the proinflammatory cytokine TNFα mRNA in the 120 μT group
					Immunohistochemistry for GFAP
Maaroufi et al. (2011)	Wistar rats	150 kHz	6.25 μT	1 h/d, 21 consecutive days	Lipid peroxidation level of MDA	Significantly increased of the lipid peroxidation in the cerebellum in the IF EMF exposure group.
	1-month male rat				Enzyme activity of SOD and catalase
	5 groups; saline (n = 8), iron overload (IO) (n = 8), EMF exposed (n = 6), EMF-IO (n = 6), sham-without iron (n = 6)
Ohtani et al. (2019)	C57BL/6NCrSlc mice	82 kHz	1.97 × 10^4 μT 2.35 × 10^4 μT	1 h/d, 5 days/week, 2 weeks	Microarray analysis in brain and liver	No effects
	5-week-old male mice EMF: 19.7 mT (n = 5), 25.3 mT (n = 10)	Wireless power transfer			Real time RT-PCR
Ohtani et al. (2021)	C57BL/6NCrSlc mice 5-week-old male mice	82 kHz	1.97 × 10^4 μT 2.35 × 10^4 μT	1 h/d, 5 days/week, 2 weeks	Biochemical and hematological parameter of blood	No effects
	Sham (n = 5), EMF (n = 15) X-ray irradiation (n = 4)	Wireless power transfer			Micronuclei assay
					Pig-a mutation assay in mature erythrocytes and reticulocytes
Rusovan et al. (1992)	SD rat female weighing 200 g with crush lesion of the right sciatic nerve	500 Hz, 1000 Hz, 1500 Hz, and 2000 Hz	100 μT	3, 4 or 6 days	Nerve regeneration	Increased in the nerve regeneration rate at 1000 Hz
	(group sizes and age of animals and group size was not described)	Sinusoidal
Ushiyama et al. (2014)	SD rats	21 kHz	3.8 × 10^3 μT	1 h/d, 14 days	Biochemical and hematological parameter of blood	No effects
	4–5-week-old male rats				Real time chemotactic assay
	Cage control (n = 11), sham (n = 12), EMF (n = 12)				Phagocytic activity
	Animals were restrained in acrylic holders				Immune function
					Cytotoxic activity
					T-cell population
Win-Shwe et al. (2013)	C57BL/6J mice 8-week-old male and female mice Sham (n = 3/sex), EMF exposure (n = 3/sex)	21 kHz	3.8 × 10^3 μT	1 h/d, 2 weeks	Body weight and organ weight	No effects
					Hippocampal mRNA expression levels in NMDA^a receptor subunits such as NR1b, NR2A, and NR2B, CaMK-IVc, CREB-1d, NGF, and BDNF
	Recovery (exposed to EMF 2 weeks and then left for one week in home before sample collection) (n = 3/sex)				Histological examination
Win-Shwe et al. (2015)	C57BL/6J mice Pregnant mice	21 kHz	3.8 × 10^3 μT	1 h/d, G7–G17, or G7–G17+ PND27–PND48	Quantification of mRNA expression level in hippocampus	Expression levels of memory function-related genes such as NMDA receptors (NR1, NR2B) and their signal transduction pathway molecules (CaMK-IV, CREB-1) were significantly upregulated in the hippocampus of 7-week-old male mice exposed to IF EMF during organogenesis and adolescent periods and these changes are transient and recover after termination of exposure without histopathological changes.
	5 groups according to the combination of exposure conditions in organogenesis (G7–G17) and/or adolescent period (PND27–48) (n = 6/group)	Sinusoidal			Histological examination
					Immunohistochemistry

The magnetic flux density was represented by rms value, but if it was a peak value, the value followed by peak.

^a NMDA: N-methyl-d-aspartate.

^b NR: MNDA receptor.

^c CaMK-IV: calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase-IV.

^d CREB-1: cyclic AMP responsive element binding protein-1.

Figure 2. Adverse effects of IF-EMF in animal models in vivo. The magnetic flux density (µT) was rms value, but if it was a peak value, it was indicated as ‘peak’. TNFα: tumor necrosis factor-α; IL-6: interleukin 6; IL-1β: interleukin 1 beta; G: gestation; PD: postnatal day; CNP: 2′,3′-cyclic nucleotide 3′-phosphodiesterase; AChE: acetylcholine esterase; NGF: nerve growth factor; NMDA: N-methyl-d-aspartate; POMC: proopiomelanocortin.

Frölen H, Svedenstål BM, Paulsson LE. 1993. Effects of pulsed magnetic fields on the developing mouse embryo. Bioelectromagnetics. 14(3):197–204.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Svedenstål BM, Holmberg B. 1993. Lymphoma development among mice exposed to X-rays and pulsed magnetic fields. Int J Radiat Biol. 64(1):119–125.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Svedenstål BM, Johanson KJ. 1995. Fetal loss in mice exposed to magnetic fields during early pregnancy. Bioelectromagnetics. 16(5):284–289.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Dimberg Y. 1995. Neurochemical effects of a 20 kHz magnetic field on the central nervous system in prenatally exposed mice. Bioelectromagnetics. 16(4):263–267.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Huuskonen H, Juutilainen J, Komulainen H. 1993. Effects of low‐frequency magnetic fields on fetal development in rats. Bioelectromagnetics. 14(3):205–213.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Huuskonen H, Juutilainen J, Julkunen A, Mäki-Paakkanen J, Komulainen H. 1998a. Effects of gestational exposure to a video display terminal-like magnetic field (20-kHz) on CBA/S mice. Teratology. 58(5):190–196.

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Huuskonen H, Juutilainen J, Julkunen A, Mäki-Paakkanen J, Komulainen H. 1998b. Effects of low-frequency magnetic fields on fetal development in CBA/Ca mice. Bioelectromagnetics. 19(8):477–485.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Juutilainen J, Huuskonen H, Komulainen H. 1997. Increased resorptions in CBA mice exposed to low-frequency magnetic fields: an attempt to replicate earlier observations. Bioelectromagnetics. 18(6):410–417.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kim SH, Song JE, Kim SR, Oh H, Gimm YM, Yoo DS, Pack JK, Lee YS. 2004. Teratological studies of prenatal exposure of mice to a 20 kHz sawtooth magnetic field. Bioelectromagnetics. 25(2):114–117.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kim SH, Lee HJ, Choi SY, Gimm YM, Pack JK, Choi HD, Lee YS. 2006. Toxicity bioassay in Sprague-Dawley rats exposed to 20 kHz triangular magnetic field for 90 days. Bioelectromagnetics. 27(2):105–111.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lee HJ, Kim SH, Choi SY, Gimm YM, Pack JK, Choi HD, Lee YS. 2006. Long-term exposure of Sprague Dawley rats to 20 kHz triangular magnetic fields. Int J Radiat Biol. 82(4):285–291.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lee HJ, Choi SY, Jang JJ, Gimm YM, Pack JK, Choi HD, Kim N, Lee YS. 2007. Lack of promotion of mammary, lung and skin tumorigenesis by 20 kHz triangular magnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics. 28(6):446–453.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lee HJ, Pack JK, Gimm YM, Choi HD, Kim N, Kim SH, Lee YS. 2009. Teratological evaluation of mouse fetuses exposed to a 20 kHz EMF. Bioelectromagnetics. 30(4):330–333.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lee HJ, Gimm YM, Choi HD, Kim N, Kim SH, Lee YS. 2010. Chronic exposure of Sprague-Dawley rats to 20 kHz triangular magnetic fields. Int J Radiat Biol. 86(5):384–389.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kumari K, Capstick M, Cassara AM, Herrala M, Koivisto H, Naarala J, Tanila H, Viluksela M, Juutilainen J. 2017. Effects of intermediate frequency magnetic fields on male fertility indicators in mice. Environ Res. 157:64–70.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kumari K, Koivisto H, Capstick M, Naarala J, Viluksela M, Tanila H, Juutilainen J. 2018. Behavioural phenotypes in mice after prenatal and early postnatal exposure to intermediate frequency magnetic fields. Environ Res. 162:27–34.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Herrala M, Kumari K, Koivisto H, Luukkonen J, Tanila H, Naarala J, Juutilainen J. 2018. Genotoxicity of intermediate frequency magnetic fields in vitro and in vivo. Environ Res. 167:759–769.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Nishimura I, Oshima A, Shibuya K, Negishi T. 2011. Lack of teratological effects in rats exposed to 20 or 60 kHz magnetic fields. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol. 92(5):469–477.

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Nishimura I, Oshima A, Shibuya K, Mitani T, Negishi T. 2012. Absence of reproductive and developmental toxicity in rats following exposure to a 20-kHz or 60-kHz magnetic field. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 64(3):394–401.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Nishimura I, Oshima A, Shibuya K, Mitani T, Negishi T. 2016. Acute and subchronic toxicity of 20 kHz and 60 kHz magnetic fields in rats. J Appl Toxicol. 36(2):199–210.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Nishimura I, Doi Y, Imai N, Kawabe M, Mera Y, Shiina T. 2019. Carcinogenicity of intermediate frequency magnetic field in Tg.rasH2 mice. Bioelectromagnetics. 40(3):160–169.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Win-Shwe TT, Ohtani S, Ushiyama A, Fujimaki H, Kunugita N. 2013. Can intermediate-frequency magnetic fields affect memory function-related gene expressions in hippocampus of C57BL/6J mice? J Toxicol Sci. 38(2):169–176.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Win-Shwe TT, Ohtani S, Ushiyama A, Kunugita N. 2015. Early exposure to intermediate-frequency magnetic fields alters brain biomarkers without histopathological changes in adult mice. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 12(4):4406–4421.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ushiyama A, Ohtani S, Suzuki Y, Wada K, Kunugita N, Ohkubo C. 2014. Effects of 21-kHz intermediate frequency magnetic fields on blood properties and immune systems of juvenile rats. Int J Radiat Biol. 90(12):1211–1217.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ohtani S, Ushiyama A, Maeda M, Wada K, Suzuki Y, Hattori K, Kunugita N, Ishii K. 2019. Global analysis of transcriptional expression in mice exposed to intermediate frequency magnetic fields utilized for wireless power transfer systems. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 16(10):1851.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ohtani S, Ushiyama A, Wada K, Suzuki Y, Ishii K, Hattori K. 2021. No evidence for genotoxicity in mice due to exposure to intermediate-frequency magnetic fields used for wireless power-transfer systems. Mutat Res Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen. 863–864:503310.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Robertson IG, Wilson WR, Dawson BV, Zwi LJ, Green AW, Boys JT. 1996. Evaluation of potential health effects of 10 kHz magnetic fields: a short-term mouse toxicology study. Bioelectromagnetics. 17(2):111–122.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Zhao J, Wu Z, Yang T, Zhao Y, Wang L. 2020. Electromagnetic biological effect on mice in wireless power transmission system. IEEE Access. 8:205558–205567.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lerchl A, Drees Née Grote K, Gronau I, Fischer D, Bauch J, Hoppe A. 2021. Effects of long-term exposure of intermediate frequency magnetic fields (20 kHz, 360 µT) on the development, pathological findings, and behavior of female mice. Bioelectromagnetics. 42(4):309–316.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Chiang H, Wu R, Shao B, Fu Y, Yao G, Lu D. 1995. Pulsed magnetic field from video display terminals enhances teratogenic effects of cytosine arabinoside in mice. Bioelectromagnetics. 16(1):70–74.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Dawson BV, Robertson IG, Wilson WR, Zwi LJ, Boys JT, Green AW. 1998. Evaluation of potential health effects of 10 kHz magnetic fields: a rodent reproductive study. Bioelectromagnetics. 19(3):162–171.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Stuchly MA, Ruddick J, Villeneuve D, Robinson K, Reed B, Lecuyer DW, Tan K, Wong J. 1988. Teratological assessment of exposure to time-varying magnetic field. Teratology. 38(5):461–466.

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Wiley MJ, Corey P, Kavet R, Charry J, Harvey S, Agnew D, Walsh M. 1992. The effects of continuous exposure to 20-kHz sawtooth magnetic fields on the litters of CD-1 mice. Teratology. 46(4):391–398.

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

de Kleijn S, Ferwerda G, Wiese M, Trentelman J, Cuppen J, Kozicz T, de Jager L, Hermans PW, Verburg-van Kemenade BM. 2016. A short-term extremely low frequency electromagnetic field exposure increases circulating leukocyte numbers and affects HPA-axis signaling in mice. Bioelectromagnetics. 37(7):433–443.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Juutilainen J, Björk E, Saali K. 1988. Epilepsy and electromagnetic fields: effects of simulated atmospherics and 100-Hz magnetic fields on audiogenic seizure in rats. Int J Biometeorol. 32(1):17–20.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kumari K, Koivisto H, Viluksela M, Paldanius KMA, Marttinen M, Hiltunen M, Naarala J, Tanila H, Juutilainen J. 2017. Behavioral testing of mice exposed to intermediate frequency magnetic fields indicates mild memory impairment. PLOS One. 12(12):e0188880.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Maaroufi K, Save E, Poucet B, Sakly M, Abdelmelek H, Had-Aissouni L. 2011. Oxidative stress and prevention of the adaptive response to chronic iron overload in the brain of young adult rats exposed to a 150 kilohertz electromagnetic field. Neuroscience. 186:39–47.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Rusovan A, Kanje M, Mild KH. 1992. The stimulatory effect of magnetic fields on regeneration of the rat sciatic nerve is frequency dependent. Exp Neurol. 117(1):81–84.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar