Constructive alignment in foreign language curricula: an exploration of teaching and assessment practices in Dutch secondary education

Figures & data

Table 1. Main characteristics of CLT (based on Larsen-Freeman and Anderson 2011).

CLT principles
Use of the target language in meaningful spoken and written interactions: the context in which a communicative activity takes place should be connected to students’ experiences, interests, and/or imagination.
Use of a ‘functional grammar’ approach. Attention to form aspects of language (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation), embedded in meaningful, communicative activities.
Use of functional language activities integrating different language skills, with an appropriate degree of free production, that prepare learners for communicating in real-life situations.
Focus on the development of strategies to help students perform language tasks and/or to solve problems in communication.
Use of authentic materials instead of isolated representative sentences out of context.
Use of appropriate scaffolding that enables students to progress in their language development (with regard to form and/or content).

Table 2. Lesson goals in observed lessons (N = 31).

Lesson goals	Frequency	Percentage
Developing FL skills	14	45%
Developing knowledge of grammar rules and vocabulary outside authentic situations (focus on forms)	13	42%
Developing content knowledge (e.g. culture, literature)	4	13%

Table 3. Adherence to CLT criteria of learning activities in observed lessons focusing on the development of language skills (N = 31).

Language skills		Meaningful activities	Appropriate degree of free production/Use of functional comprehension activities	Authenticity	Appropriate scaffolding	Development of communicative strategies
	N	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)
Speaking	14	1.93 (.73)	.93 (.92)	.43 (.65)	.79(.90)	.64 (.74)
Writing	9	2.11 (1.06)	1.56 (1.24)	1.11 (1.06)	1.11 (1.17)	1.33 (1.12)
Reading	13	1.69 (.75)	1.23 (1.02)	.69 (.75)	1.00 (1.71)	1.31 (1.03)
Listening	10	2.00 (.82)	1.60 (.97)	.60 (.70)	.30 (.49)	.30 (.49)
All language skills	46	1.94 (.84)	1.33 (1.04)	.7 (1.03)	.80 (1.19)	.90 (.84)

0 = not visible or predominantly weak; 1 = more weak than strong; 2 = more strong than weak; 3 = predominantly strong

Table 4. Knowledge and skills addressed most frequently in lessons according to students (N = 471).

Knowledge and skills	Frequency	Percentage
Grammar rules and words	209	44.5%
Reading skills	120	25.5%
Writing skills	36	14%
speaking skills	64	8%
Listening skills	34	7%
Culture	8	2%

Table 5. Frequency and weighting of tests (N = 101) within assessment programmes of FL departments (N = 10).

Test content	Frequency	Average weighting
Knowledge of grammatical rules, vocabulary and chunks out of context.	36	36%
Knowledge of grammatical rules, vocabulary and chunks out of context combined with one or more language skills.	19	40%
Development of two or more language skills.	8	18%
Development of reading skills.	13	26%
Development of listening skills.	9	13%
Development of writing skills.	8	15%
Development of speaking skills.	8	11.5%

Table 6. Focus of tasks (N = 88) in representative FL tests (N = 43).

Tasks	Frequency	Percentage
Application of grammar rules or vocabulary outside a communicative context	21	18.5%
Translation of words, sentences or chunks	35	30.8%
Multiple choice reading test	12	10.6%
Strongly guided writing task	4	3.5%
(Recorded) pre-written and prepared dialogue or presentation	7	6.2%
Open (creative) task	5	4.4%
Multiple choice listening test	4	3.5%

Table 7. Communicative aspects present in representative FL tests tasks assessing language skills (N = 32).

Communicative aspects	Frequency	Percentage
Meaningful communication	27	84.4%
Authentic situations	10	31.2%
Unpredictability	1	3.2%
Appropriate degree of free production	3	9.4%
Skills integration	1	3.2%

Table 8. Most frequently tested knowledge or skills according to students (N = 470).

Knowledge and skills	Frequency	Percentage
Grammar rules and words	346	74%
Reading skills	75	16%
Writing skills	34	7%
speaking skills	9	2%
Listening skills	6	1%
Culture	0	0%

Table 9. Factors of influence in the implementation of CLT learning goals and activities reported by FL teachers in interviews.

Factors	N ( =  21)	Examples of explanations given by teachers
Time and expertise	10	‘I find that difficult. I work full-time, so sometimes I just have to do something. Because I don't have much time to prepare properly and I think that it is a pity. So not all lesson goals fit and I'm not going to formulate lesson goals every lesson. I think that working outside the textbook is better but it requires a lot of preparation and I miss then a clear line. You develop while you are doing it and then it can get a bit messy.’ T11
		‘We have a textbook. We follow the book and we are not always happy with that. Especially because the grammar is not offered the way we want it. But if you have a textbook, you follow a certain step-by-step plan. But if I want to do it myself, it takes a lot of insight and a lot of time.’ T3
		‘We are busy with a lot of things, but what I want is to improve my lessons and have time to think about it, and that time is just not very often there’. T2
Agreements within FL departments	17	‘The problem is that the material (in this case the grammar rules) must be covered in preparation for the test as decided in the department.’ T9
		‘I try to do something ‘outside the textbook’ on a regular basis, but I have difficulty doing so because within our department it is important that we work in a consistent way. I would like to make more use of authentic texts.’ T8
		‘The problem is that the material (in this case the grammar rules) must be covered in preparation for the test as decided in the department.’ T9

Larsen-Freeman, D. and M. Anderson. 2011. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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