What does it mean to be a ‘self-initiated’ expatriate in different contexts? A conceptual analysis and suggestions for future research

Figures & data

Table 1. Characteristics of ‘personal initiative’ in the expatriation context (based on Frese & Fay, 2001).

Self-starting	Proactive	Persistent
1. Goal Setting
Self-set goal to relocate internationally (no instruction or explicit role requirement); goal implies innovative approach as reflected in large psychological distance (expatriation as unexpected, unconventional, unusual step given what is normal in the career, industry, profession or countries concerned; SIE does not just follow the example of many other colleagues in the same profession, country)	Anticipate future problems/opportunities; convert to a goal	Protect goals; continue working on goals even when confronted with setbacks and failure and being frustrated; overcome others resistance to own goal
2. Information seeking
Active search; exploration, active scanning of environment	Consider potential future problem areas/ opportunities before they occur; develop knowledge on alternative routes of action	Maintain search in spite of complexity & negative emotions
3. Planning
Active plan to relocate	Back-up plans and action plans for problems/opportunities are developed; long-range plans; challenge status quo of employment and/or in order to improve current personal circumstances or to create new ones; develop personal prerequisites for meeting future demands	Overcome barriers, other people’s resistance and inertia; return to plan quickly when disturbed or distracted; change plans flexibly when necessary (but not prematurely)
4. Monitoring and feedback
Self-developed feedback; active search for feedback	Develop self-reviews for potential problems/opportunities	Maintaining feedback search in spite of difficulties or negative emotions (e.g., when receiving negative feedback or after problems occur)

Table 2. Examples of SIE self-starting behavior, proactivity and persistence.

Self-starting	Proactive	Persistent
1. Goal Setting
SIE sets goal to relocate internationally and to work abroad deliberately (without external order, pressure or demand, without an explicit role requirement)	SIE knows that country is in need of people in own profession in future	SIE keeps goal to relocate internationally despite first failed attempts to receive a visa, to find adequate job
SIE copes with high psychological distance	Sets goal to relocate internationally and apply for job before others do. Sets goal to find mentors and networks.	Successfully regulates the emotions that arise when barriers appear repeatedly Successfully adapts even in the face of mistakes
2. Information seeking
SIE collects information on what can be done, ways how to find employment, how to apply	After identifying a potential country and job, SIE considers if job is sufficiently contributing to career	SIE keeps searching for alternative jobs, if other jobs the individual applied not offered / not adequate
Explores various job opportunities abroad	Collects information to anticipate future opportunities in job and housing market (e.g., new job demands in terms of qualifications, job responsibilities, work processes; development of rental charges)	Persists until they successfully transitions to new country
Asks people about potential jobs suitable to own profile	Develops ideas of who to turn to in case problems occur	Continues to navigate the legal employment system even when it seems impossible
Actively scans adequate job offers by companies abroad	Asks other employers if vacancies will come up
Gets access to and attains appropriate information of housing market	Checks options for becoming self-employed and contacts persons who might be interested to co-operate
Visits country before move	Identifies mentors that could provide advice
Scans the environment for potentially important cues	Joins local expatriate groups, professional associations to network
Researches local expat websites, talks to repatriates, host country nationals to collect information on jobs, private issues	Identifies restaurants, bars, and other locations to network
3. Planning
Makes a (rudimentary or elaborated) active plan on how to travel, rent an apartment, acquire a good employment abroad given one’s resource constraints	Studies native language	Finds creative solutions to initial failures without delegating responsibility to somebody else
Takes on a lot of responsibilities (e.g., job search, application, searching accommodation, organizing work permit, completing necessary employment paper work, establishing networks, approaching resource providers such as bank, maintenance staff/caregiver)	Studies culture in depth; finds a ‘local host’ or culture consultant to help to adjust	Overcomes the challenges in finding a new job (e.g., restricted working permits, language challenges, low employability abroad)
Actively markets him-/herself (e.g., employers, employment agency, temporary work agency)	Takes courses to prepare for future job demands	Continues to apply and network until job is found
	Researches host country employment laws	Learns to adapt to new environment
4. Monitoring and feedback
Asks potential employers for feedback on own application	Economic growth as presignal for SIE. Anticipates job chances will significantly decrease during economic decline	If not feedback by employer to evaluate his application activities, will send reminder
Asks other SIEs, repatriates, foreign nationals for feedback on application approach and portfolio, so that one can tell whether one is on the right track		Gives small present to other persons who support
		Learns quickly from cultural mistakes and embarrassments

Figure 1. Research model.

Frese, M., & Fay, D. (2001). Personal initiative: An active performance concept for work in the 21st century. Research in Organizational Behavior, 23, 133–187. doi:10.1016/S0191-3085(01)23005-6

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