Hidden agenda for cross-cultural training: understanding refugees’ cross-cultural experience through the capability approach

Figures & data

Figure 1. Articles by year.

Table 1. Sample journals overview.

Journals	Frequency
International Journal of Intercultural Relations	19
Journal of Vocational Behavior	14
Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies	7
Career Development International, Community Development Journal, Human Relations, International Migration, International Migration Review, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, Journal of Refugee Studies, Journal of Vocational Education and Training	4
Journal of International Migration and Integration	3
British Educational Research Journal, Ethnic and Racial Studies, European Journal of Social Work, Journal of International and Intercultural Communication	2
Other journals (non-exhaustive selection): Academy of Management Discoveries, Academy of Management Journal, European Management Review, Human Resource Management Journal, Journal of International Management, VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations	1
Total	135

Table 2. Number of articles by field of study.

Field	Frequency
(International) Management	22
Demography, including Migration and Ethnic Studies	23
Organizational Behavior and Human Resources Management	13
Cultural Studies	12
Political Science and International Relations	11
Applied Psychology	10
Geography, Planning and Development	10
Education	9
Communication	5
Anthropology	3
Other Social Sciences, including History and Law	17
Total	135

Table 3. Summary of the emerging themes with representative articles for refugees.

Emerging themes	Representative references	Main theoretical frameworks	Key findings
Target social group
Women	Bailey, 2012; Colvin & Munz, 2020; Knappert et al., 2018; Kohl, 2021; Te Lindert et al., 2008; Owino & Weber, 2020; Semlak et al., 2008; Willott & Stevenson, 2006	Agency theory, Durkheim and Merton’s Anomie, Cultural fusion theory, Optimal distinctiveness theory, Relational dialectical theory	Conflicts exist between gendered roles in home and host societies. Women experience reinforced exclusion at work and social isolation due to their low socio-economic status, and this, in turn, affects their coping strategies, resettlement and adjustment. Women migrants in egalitarian countries report less discrimination and fewer negative acculturation outcomes than their male counterparts. Sexual objectification and exploitation based on gender prevails. Refugee women can experience lack of social standards (anomie) leading to marginalization and retreatism as acculturation mechanism. Women feel empowered through a gender network experience of affiliation and engagement. Equality discourse differs from practice based on exceptionalism and bureaucratization, reinforcing ‘traditional’ gender roles. Women explain their unemployment in terms of ‘self’ or intrinsic failures rather than extrinsic circumstances.
Family	Bartlett et al., 2017; Beiser et al., 2015; Birman, 2006; Birman & Tran, 2017; Buchanan et al., 2018; Khawaja & Milner, 2012; Pascucci, 2019; Patel et al., 2017; Spicer, 2008; Westin, 2003; Wilkinson et al., 2017	Bourdieuian concepts of cultural and social capital and habitus, Critical race theory, Post-colonial theory, Theory of practice architectures	More acculturation stress arises from family conflicts when families are financially unstable and there is limited social support. Predicted family disagreements as children resonate with local culture, while parents feel more alienated. Refugee students face immeasurable academic challenges in their adjustment to their new environments. For children and youth, studying in a foreign country brings acculturative stress and adjustment problems. Affiliation with religious organizations, youth groups, and sporting associations improves social and cultural capitals, positively contributing to adjustment and school achievements.
Occupational groups	Lee & Szkudlarek, 2021; Richardson et al., 2019; Tomlinson & Egan, 2002	Relational perspective, HRM−CSR nexus, Ecosystem framework	Refugees do not form a homogeneous group, but are from a diverse socio-economic backgrounds with differing career experiences in their home countries. To develop career related capabilities, occupational grouping based on expertise, fields of work, and level of experience need to be considered. Multiple stakeholder collaboration, including accreditation bodies, educational institutions, and businesses, is crucial to understand and assess refugees’ home-country career experiences and to assist them rebuild their careers. Establishing networks based on a shared identification as a member of an occupational group is crucial.
Domains of cross-cultural training
Empowerment	Bailey, 2012; Nardon et al., 2021; Piacentini, 2015; Tomlinson & Egan, 2002	Identity theory, Agency theory, Intersectionality theory	Equipped with more employability resources, refugees are made more confident and optimistic. Empowering involves exposure to a network experience of affiliation and engagement. Schemes providing an internal, culturally sensitive safety net reinforce migrants’ sense of belonging and therefore their feeling of empowerment. Empowerment discourse deployed by organizational representatives is mismatched with the demoralizing effect of vocational disappointment and frustration. Communities surrounding refugees perpetuate their identity and status as outsiders.
Language learning	Cheah et al., 2011; Izquierdo et al., 2021; Matikainen, 2003; Raska, 2021	Social justice theory, Integrative theory of communication	Language learning aims to re-give refugees a voice. Language learning is viewed as social integration via a lens of social justice. Limited training focused on issues related to language. Language training for migrants’ labor integration and participation is not a genuine priority in most of receiving countries.
Vocational and formal education	Delaporte & Piracha, 2018; Kohl, 2021; Lee & Szkudlarek, 2021; Mahmoudi, 1992; Matikainen, 2003; Owino & Weber, 2020; Piacentini, 2015	Concept of life-span, Capability approach	Non-transferability of home-country qualifications and experience pose challenges for refugees. Businesses also rarely understand foreign qualifications. Skills gap training to account for the years spent outside of work, while in refugee camps and in transit during their journeys is critical. Technical and/or formal education provide contextual understanding for refugees. Education not only develops refugees’ skillsets, but also boosts psychological wellbeing by improving confidence, sense of belonging and feeling of self-worth. On-the-job training, such as internships and volunteering, is also found to be effective in building socio-cultural understanding, while developing practical skillsets.
Other general support	Beiser et al., 2015; Birman & Tran, 2008; Buchanan et al., 2018; Haase et al., 2019; Jorden et al., 2009; Newman, Nielsen, et al., 2018; O’Donnell et al., 2020; Patel et al., 2017	Conservation of resources theory, Rejection sensitivity theory, Social identity theory, Social exchange theory	Exposure to traumatic events (e.g. war, violence) may change refugees’ response to acculturative stressors. A substantial proportion of refugees meet diagnostic criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder and have been exposed to cumulative traumas leading to mental health issues. Attachment, commitment, and involvement is negatively associated with depression independent from the number and nature of pre-migration traumas.
Cross-sector engagement
Public sector support	Duman, 2015; Glorius, 2017; Klocker, 2004; Mahmoudi, 1992; Matikainen, 2003; Oguzertem, 2019; Rodríguez, 2018	Concept of life-span	Politicians can intensify exclusionary discourse and legal practices against refugees. Government discourse can impact negatively the public perceptions of asylum seekers. Migration schemes that delimit refugees’ access to the labor market can create adverse consequences for both migrants and host communities. Extensive support, including free language training, tailored for the needs of refugees is needed. Many countries, however, fail to provide adequate levels of local language support.
Non-profit organizations	Calo et al., 2022; Garkisch et al., 2017; Lee & Szkudlarek, 2021; Mahmoudi, 1992; Matikainen, 2003; Nardon et al., 2021; Piacentini, 2015; Pascucci, 2019; Wilkinson et al., 2017	Bourdieuian concepts of cultural and social capital and habitus, Theories of social and cultural capital, HRM−CSR nexus	Non-profit organizations supplement the elements and opportunities of governments’ integration support. Non-profit organizations provide cross-cultural training to refugees, along with other general living supports, such as psychological support, housing, and schooling. Non-profit organizations also provide multiple training opportunities, such as formal education, language training, volunteering and internship. While economic migrants use non-profit organizations to engage in the community through volunteering and develop more informal networks for refugees, these organizations are the main providers of integration support services and training education services. Some non-profit organizations facilitate interaction between local businesses and refugees acting as agents, such as church, youth groups, and sporting associations, fostering social and cultural capitals.
Volunteers	Allegri et al., 2020; Florian et al., 2019; McAllum, 2018, 2020	Attachment/commitment perspective, Neoliberalism, Sociological frameworks	Volunteers play an important role in contesting marginalization of refugees, but also may serve as foot soldiers for hegemonic forms of citizenship that privilege Whiteness, Christianity, a Protestant work ethic, and gendered practices of care. Volunteers need to view the participants in CCT as ‘social actors’, rather than based on their culture.
Cross-cultural experience
Acculturation	Birman, 2006; Te Lindert et al., 2008; Renzaho et al., 2022; Vinokurov et al., 2017	Acculturation theory, Ecological acculturation framework	Acculturation strategies depend on migrant’s cultural background and socio-demographic factors, and yet research has not reached consensus. Complete acculturation may not be the goal, but rather some sort of fusion between former and host cultures.
Assimilation	Bilge, 2017; Brislin, 1986; Persky & Birman, 2005; Renzaho et al., 2022	Acculturation theory, Unidirectional model and bi-dimensional model of acculturation, Theory of adaptation	Assimilation is associated with full time employment status and longer length of residence in host countries. Migrants with integration and assimilation as acculturation strategy experience less discrimination than those opting for separation. Adaptation does not mean assimilation and/or alienation. Assimilation and/or alienation often lead to conflicts between dominant and non-dominant cultures. Cross-cultural training materials (e.g. culture sensitizer, culture assimilator) can be seen and designed to be applicable, regardless of future roles or countries.
Belongingness	Bailey, 2012; Fozdar, 2023; Stewart et al., 2012; Tomlinson & Egan, 2002	Intersectionality theory, Agency theory, Optimal distinctiveness theory, Diversity theories	Agency and self-determination are considered mechanisms of choosing to be active actors in society. Belongingness combines with uniqueness (e.g. contributing fully, using one’s talents, being heard and appreciated). Support from ethnically similar others fulfills the need to belong yet does not necessarily lead to high-quality employment. For ‘visibly different’ migrants, belonging cannot be assumed. Material, social, and existential elements of settlement intersect with belongingness. Settlement policy and services tend to focus on material aspects, neglecting social connections (bonds, bridges, and links), vital for developing a sense of belonging and emotional connection. While some argue group training can help to create links and own social support, others suggest that it sometimes perpetuates the refugees’ identity as outsider.
Integration	Gericke et al., 2018; Izquierdo et al., 2021; Phillimore, 2017	Social capital theory, Integration theory, Social cognitive theory, Conservation of resources theory, Rejection sensitivity theory	Human resource management plays an important role, specifically on how an ambidextrous human resource architecture can help firms explore refugees as a talent pool. In terms of workforce integration, vertical bridging social capital is a valuable source for securing adequate employment, and horizontal bonding social capital and independent job-searching methods may more often lead to low skilled work or underemployment. Enabling hosts and migrants to access new social fields creates the opportunity for embedded integration, thus shifting our attention to institutions has much to offer in conceptual, empirical, and policy terms.
Separation, marginalization, alienation	Bilge, 2017; Persky and Birman, 2005; Westin, 2003	Acculturation theory; Unidirectional model and bi-dimensional model of acculturation; Theory of adaptation	Different identities make distinctive contributions to feelings of alienation. Separation (relying on ethnic minority culture only and rejecting majority culture) and marginalization (rejecting both cultures) have varied over time and context (receiving countries, ethnic groups).

Table 4. Summary of emerging themes with representative articles for the receiving communities, organizations, and individuals.

Emerging themes	Representative references	Main theoretical frameworks	Key findings
Training organizations, and their educators	Castrellón, 2021; Choy & Wärvik, 2019	Practice theory lens, Critical race theory	Educators require cultural competences. Structural and policy-level barriers to higher education and institutional agents enact barriers through individual practices. Representatives of training organizations act as agents playing a vital role in assisting students of humanitarian backgrounds throughout their educational journey. Institutions need to increase the competencies of their agents and representatives in reinforcing policies and support.
Healthcare providers	Griswold et al., 2021	Framework of deliberate practice	Interpreting services are crucial for vulnerable communities, such as those of refugees. Interprofessional curriculum for health professionals are recommended to account for the language divides.
Non-profit organizations and their volunteers	Allegri et al., 2020; Calo et al., 2022; Florian et al., 2019; Garkisch et al., 2017; McAllum, 2018, 2020	Organizational justice theory, attachment/commitment perspective, metaphor of ‘overflow’ of meaningfulness, adaptation theory	Workplace inclusion to identify justice-based practices that will help non-profit organizations address refugees’ need for uniqueness and enhance their sense of belongingness. Migrant cohorts educate volunteers and support workers so that their quality of assistance can improve for the next batch of trainees. Volunteers’ commitment is structured by the presence and absence of volunteer coordinators. Volunteers detach themselves from the organization when ties are insufficient, competing, or overly strong. Meaning ‘overflow’ triggers volunteers to reframe their experience in dysfunctional ways, such as not providing enough space for refugees to move out of the position of a passive victim and participate in the running of the shelter or in taking a paternalistic and culturally superior stance reinforcing social boundaries. Refugees’ volunteers are often exploited and at risk of compassion fatigue and burnout. Even motivated and knowledgeable volunteers respectful of diversity issues may inadvertently hinder adaptation. Volunteers are supposed to foster reciprocal adaptation by refugees and host nationals by acting as intercultural mediators. Refugees’ resettlement requires fostering intra-cultural communication.

Figure 2. Refugee context specific cross-cultural training model using a capability approach.

Table 5. Unanswered questions in each theme.

Under-researched topics	Unanswered questions
Target social groups	Who needs cross-cultural training? How should the contents and delivery modes of CCT differ or be similar based on target social groups, such as women, the disabled, and LGBTIQI migrants? In what ways can family members, including women working at home and children, be included in CCT that is tailored to their needs to adjust to the local community and schools?
Domains of cross-cultural training	Which domains matter most for refugees, asylum seekers, or other migrants? What determines such importance? How does each domain covered in CCT contribute to cross-cultural adjustment of refugees separately and conjointly? Where is the boundary of CCT in terms of work and non-work domains?
Cross-sector engagement	What are the roles of government organizations, policymakers, non-profit organizations, volunteers, and social workers? In what ways do each of the stakeholders contribute differently to CCT offered in businesses? How can stakeholder contributions be more effective in creation and delivery of CCT for refugees? How does CCT delivered in governmental organizations or non-profit organizations differ from that of local businesses and multinational corporations?
Outcomes	What determines a successful, effective CCT? How can long- and short-term outcomes of CCT be measured for refugees? Can they differ based on their status, e.g. refugees and asylum seekers? How can CCT lead to different outcomes at individual, family, organizational, and societal levels?
Receiving communities, organizations and individuals	Who or which organizations are responsible for providing CCT for local community members and organizations? What determines the effectiveness of CCT for receiving community organizations and individuals? Who in receiving communities ultimately needs to be trained to promote integration of refugees? How can governmental organizations and policymakers promote participation of local community organizations and individuals into CCT to facilitate refugees’ integration?

Table 6. Policy and managerial implications.

Stakeholders	Policy and managerial implications
Recommendations for policymakers and governmental organizations	Targeted governmental programs could encourage refugees trying to start their own businesses by facilitating the acquisition of trade licences and offering training, guidance, and material support. Qualification recognition process could be accelerated by re-allocating and adjusting resources for these accreditation bodies. Provision of governmental financial support, language courses, and vocational training could enhance refugees’ employability. Government could also launch public campaigns to fight prejudice against refugees to mitigate stigmatization and legitimation of exploitation and exclusion of these migrants.
Recommendations for educators and training organizations	Educators can help refugees create a ‘Life CV’ moving away from the ‘traditional CV’ to understand refugees’ human capital and abilities, and to leverage how these skillsets match the needs of employing organizations. Training aimed to fit local labor market demands is necessary, and could be achieved through collaboration with employers. Peer mentoring, buddy systems, in-service and pre-service education, and school leadership preparation programs could help refugee students beginning tertiary education to adjust better into university culture.
Recommendations for non-profit organizations	Provision of realistic preview of the difficulty in finding a job as well as intensive training on job search methods recommended as part of refugee training programs. Training programs could include stress management and emotional regulation skills development. Collaboration across multiple organizations could provide a more comprehensive social support for refugees.
Recommendations for company managers (including top management team and HR managers)	Developing a program specific to refugee employment and broadening of diversity and inclusion initiatives can be considered. Implementation of a peer-mentoring system, whereby refugee workers are paired with co-workers with similar experience and skill levels, and ethnic backgrounds, to promote social support at work. Inviting psychologists or counsellors who specialize in trauma to speak with managers to help them learn how they can supervise refugees in a culturally appropriate way. Organizationally sponsored social events to build community amongst host nationals and refugees could boost inclusion.

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Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.