Second language learning designs in online adult education

Figures & data

Table 1. Participant background data * years in occupation.

Gender	Format	Subject	Level	Observations	Experience
Female	SDE	ESL	Course 4	1	27
Female	SDE	ESL	Course 4	1	25
Female	SDE	ESL	Course 3	1	17
Female	SDE	ESL	Course 2	1	14
Female	ADE	ESL	Course 3	3	10
Male	SDE	ESL	Course 1	1	13
Female	SDE	ESL	Course 3	1	9
Female	ADE	SSL	Course 1	2	30
Female	ADE	SSL	Course 4	2	25
Female	ADE	SSL	Course 4	2	12
Female	ADE	SSL	Course 3	2	25
Female	ADE	SSL	Course 1	2	43
Female	ADE	SSL	Course 3	2	2
Female	ADE	SSL	Course 2	2	17
Female	ADE	SSL	Course 4	2	4
Female	ADE, SDE	SSL	Course 4	2	15
Female	ADE	SSL	Course 3	2	22
Female	HD: SDE	SSL	Course 3	1	8
Female	HD: ADE	SSL	Course 2	1	17
Female	HD: ADE	SSL	Course 1	2	12

Figure 1. Study design.

Table 2. Advancement of learning designs (ALD).

No.	Title and mode	Description of the Learning Design elements and focus	Mode
1	Language acquisition	To include practices in speaking, listening, writing and reading during one learning situation.	SDE
2	Scaffolding	To design for shorter learning sequences that frame and scaffold asynchronous learning to provide structural support, for example through nudges.	ADE
3	Combination of modalities of expression	To combine 2–3 multi-modal expressions to support communication: i.e. teacher verbal and written instruction, speech and spelling, visuals and audio, to support understanding.	SDE/ADE
4	Combination of modes	To combine synchronous and asynchronous elements in individual learning activities during one learning situation.	SDE/ADE
5	Facilitation of interaction	To use synchronous and asynchronous elements to facilitate interaction.	ADE
6	Facilitate for engagement	To support all dimensions of learner engagement in one learning situation.	SDE/ADE
7	Combination of modalities	To intentionally combine digital and physical resources during one learning situation.	SDE/ADE
8	Multiple learning activities	To manage parallel activities: i.e. individual work and support for learners in need.	SDE/ADE
9	Differentiated learning	To group and re-group learners by for example dividing learners into groups based on interest or focus to allow for personalization.	SDE/ADE
10	Challenge mode of delivery	To support engagement in other ways than the educational mode stimulates (i.e. social engagement in asynchronous learning, and emotional engagement in synchronous learning).	SDE/ADE
11	Facilitate nuanced engagement	To support nuances of engagement within the behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and social dimensions in one learning situation.	SDE/ADE
12	Facilitation of digital creation	To support learners to create with digital tools and resources.	SDE/ADE

Figure 2. Estimated level of importance.

Table 3. Grouped responses.

Elements and reported difficulty	Very important/Important	Less important/Unimportant	Difficult/Very difficult	Easy/Very easy
1 Language acquisition	9	1	3	7
2 Scaffolding	10	0	1	9
3 Combination of modalities of expression	9	1	2	8
4 Combination of modes	10	0	3	7
5 Facilitation of interaction	8	2	1	9
6 Facilitate for engagement	8	2	3	7
7 Combination of modalities	10	0	1	9
8 Multiple learning activities	9	1	3	7
9 Differentiated learning	7	3	4	6
10 Challenge mode of delivery	7	3	3	7
11 Facilitate nuanced engagement	10	0	5	5
12 Facilitation of digital creation	8	2	2	7

Figure 3. Estimated level of difficulty.

Table

Code	*	Duration time	Activity description
		09:57–10.00	‘We don’t have time to do everything that we would have time to do in [a physical] class’ the teacher explains.
ID	2	10.00–10.02	‘Join the lesson with the camera on’. Takes attendance manually. ‘Please ask questions.’
I(S)	2	10.02–10.04	Learner asks questions
L	2	10.04–10.06	Informs learners about grades, course acceptance, requirements, future schedule
I(S)	2	10.06–10.08	Learner asks questions
L	1	10.08–10.09	Teacher answers, and then expands on the subject
I(S)	2	10.09–10.11	Learner asks questions
L	1	10.11–10.12	Teacher answers, and then expands on the subject
I(T)	2	10.12–10.14	‘Any questions about the final test?’
L	6	10.14–10.20	Teacher shares screen to inform
I(S)	4	10.20–10.24	Learner asks questions
L	2	10.24–10.26	Teacher explains conditions during exam and addresses recording, fair grading and proficiency test.
I(S)	29	10.26–10.29	Learner asks questions

* abbreviations are described in Appendix B.

Table

Behavioural dimension	Example
P: Practice	teacher instructs learners to practice through synchronous exercises
P(a/s): Practice a/synchronous	teacher instructs learners practice asynchronously and synchronously
P(a/i): Asynchronous interaction	teacher instructs learners to practice through asynchronously interact with peers
P(a): Practice asynchronous	teacher instructs learners to practice individually; asynchronous exercises
Cognitive dimension
L: Listen, look	teacher provides understanding through assimilative tasks
SRL/O: Orientation	learner orientates himself/herself in an online system/forum/application
SRL/P: Planning	learner plans schoolwork
SRL/C: Checking	learner checks and submits work
Emotional dimension
DO: Produce	teacher instructs learners to do assignments to be assessed
IA: Individual Assessment	teacher provides a checklist for self-assessment
A: Test and assessment	teacher assesses progression, e.g. through quizzes, oral exams
Social dimension
D: Discussion	teacher instructs learners to discuss a matter
C: Collaboration	teacher instructs learners to collaborate
I(S): Student-led interaction	learner takes initiative to interaction, e.g. raising question
I(T): Teacher-led interaction	teacher prompts interaction, e.g. asking question
I(Tech): IT-led interaction	learner moves through a system with built in scaffolding
SSRL: Socially Shared Regulation	learner plans, set goals and strategies to collaborate
AI: Asynchronous interaction	learner interacts using blog posts
Other activities observed
Break (intentional)	teacher proposes a break
TeB Technology breakdown	technology that is not working halts instruction/learning
Paus (intentional)	teacher waits for all learners to re-join after separate activities
DRL Digital relocation	learner moves into different online locations
ID Paus (unintentional)	teacher pauses instruction due to issues with accessing materials
Adm Course-administration	time to for example create an account
CI Course information	teacher provide general course-related information

Table

ID	Mode (M)/Technologies (T)***	Notes from observation and follow-up interview	Identified elements, description of learning design and engagement*
R1	M: Synchronous T: GM, GD, GC, Kahoot	‘R1 does not instruct students to write or collaborate but writes on behalf of the students.’ (Note, R1)	3. Two modalities: voice, and written text in shared window was used to enhance comprehension.
R2	M: Synchronous T: GM, GD, GC,	‘SDE with flexible attendance: the student can choose between two online lessons’. (R2) “Ensuring all four skills (reading, listening, writing and talking) are practices, include a variety of learning elements combining modes” (Note, R2)	1, 3, 4, 7. Design included: three modalities to support comprehension and acquisition, looking at word in context, pronouncing, emphasizing spelling in chat. 4, Learning design includes several different combinations of online and offline learning, student questions from previous lesson. Intentional design that included offline learning, with offline learning resources.
R3	M: Synchronous T: GM, GD, GC, Internet	“A Google document was used as a white board. There were few variations. The lesson design was characterised by bringing the traditional pedagogies online” (Note, R3)	1, 4. Learning design includes sequences of self-directed learning and re-entering the online class to discuss.
R4	M: Synchronous T: GM, GD, GC, Internet	“Very basic, do not know how to edit students Google document or share sound in Google Classroom. Design limited to what the teacher could do – not what the students needed. R4 compares herself with a teacher who doesn’t not even know how to use Breakout rooms.” (Note, R4)	R4 did not display any of the identified elements. Characterised by extensive teacher talking time (29 minutes out of 1,5 h), turn-taking and co-working.
R5	M: Asynchronous T: GC, Internet, video	” A practice that flows across various modalities: video, chat, synchronous and asynchronous micro sequences, individual and small group” (Note, R5)	1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10. Design included conversation, and collaboration, and stimulated all dimensions of engagement. There were open tasks and flexible order was allowed. Design included stimulation of social engagement asynchronously.
R6	M: Synchronous T: GC, GM, Kahoot	“R6 was insecure when it came to digital technologies, struggled to manage breakout rooms, and did support students in using digital technologies. The students showed each other” (Field note R6)	1, 7. Design included pen and paper to write keywords and spelling of words the teacher reads aloud. “Characterised by non-varied, traditional uses of digital technologies” (Note, R6)
R7	M: Synchronous T: GM, GD, GC, online learning resource, Quizlet	“Characterised by the teacher working to make use of the digital modalities by constantly combining online tasks, conversation, writing, with games, GC, chat, breakout room, screen sharing, picture support, and metainformation, learning goals, expectations” (Note, R7)	1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9. Design included expression of target language using three modalities: video/image, pronunciation, and chat. Interaction and use of physical and online resources. There was no idle time, as activities are offered in parallel. There were open tasks and flexible order was allowed. “I focus on enabling active learning” (R7)
R8	M: Asynchronous T: GD, GC, video, YouTube, Menti, quiz	“Important with variation, predict problems in advance, experiment, meet all student needs, motivate, inspire. Should be fun, but structured. Elements should be recognisable, not repetitive” (Note, R8)	1, 2, 3, 5, 9. Design included open tasks and flexible order and students could choose their theme. “R8 uses avatars that track body postures, and constantly varies the design elements to enable a sense of learning community within the asynchronous teaching, such as: short sequences, reflections, facilitating responsiveness to a non-responsive space, insight in learning via quizzes” (Note, R8)
R9	M: Asynchronous T: GD, GC, video	“R9 reports adopting backward planning where variation, interaction, feedback, scaffold and gain insights into learning are prioritised” (Note, R9)	1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10. Design included peer response using video and text- “Considerations reflect maturity in design where R9 looks into variations and her looks to include synchronous interaction” (Note, R9)
R10	M: Asynchronous T: GD, GC, video, chat	“The design did not function as R10 intended. R10 realised students were interpreting instructions wrong. R10 worked to overcome gaps in instruction and demonstrated deliberate combination of indoor and outdoor pedagogy as a solution to zoom fatigue and isolation” (Note, R10)	3, 4, 5, 6, 10. 3. Design included expression of target language using video and text, voluntary peer response to video, meeting peers synchronously in asynchronous course. All dimensions of engagement were stimulated, and there was stimulation of social engagement asynchronously. “R10 offered synchronous chat to support asynchronous students” (Note, R10)
R11	M: Asynchronous T: GD, GC, video, media, YouTube, Flipgrid	“R11 is clear about considerations, design, and applies a complex thinking” (Note, R11) “Students upload a video”** (Note, R11)	1, 2, 3, 4, 10. Design included expression of target language using video and text. R11 challenged the mode of delivery with instructed high paced responses in forums, email and LMS.
R12	M: Asynchronous T: GD; GC, MS PowerPoint	“R12 used PPT-slides instead of recordings. R12 revised PPT slides each day and manually uploaded them at an exact time. No automation was used” (Note, R12)	R12 did not display any of the identified elements. “Design characterised by traditional distance education with a focus on cognitive engagement and self-directed learning.” (Note R12)
R13	M: Asynchronous T: GD, GC	“Design include a structure that us explicit, recognizable and preferably follows a logical flow” (Note, R13)	2, 4, 9 Design includes parallel learning activities that students can choose from
R14	M: Asynchronous T: GD; GC, GM	“I missed the oral conversation and being able to conduct dynamic assessment, but also the social community of the students. An asynchronous design with scheduled synchronous elements (student-student). (R14)	3, 4, 5, 7, 10. Design included expression of target language using video, text, and discussion with peers. In addition to asynchronous LMS posts, students watch TV show and record a conversation with their peers. R14 facilitates for socially shared regulation in asynchronous mode.
R15	M: Asynchronous T: GC, GD, video, media	“Characterised by short assimilative activities and longer phases of self-directed learning” (Note, R15)	1, 2 Design included asynchronous interaction using video, peer response and feedback, with check boxes after each element to inform teachers and mark a completion to self.
R16	M: HD T: GD, GC, GM	“R16 teaches SDE and ADE and includes four nuances of stimulated engagement in all three of the included engagement dimensions. “(Note, R16) A clear focus on autonomy support (Note, R16)	1, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. Design included expression of target language using voice, media, context, dramatizing, pronunciation, and spelling. Students used pen and paper, and digital resources. Themed student groups, and different tasks for slow and fast learners. R16 facilitates for socially shared regulation in asynchronous mode.
R17	M: Asynchronous T: GC, GD, video	“…just started to teach online and adjusted the existing tasks to make instructions clearer but did not know where to find additional required online resources needed.” (Note, R17)	3, 7, Design included some varied expression of target language: written and recorded instruction. Students used a book, pen and paper, and digital resources. Students read a book and compare characters.
R18	M: HD T: GD, GC, GM, Internet	“ Assessment. Students write their exams with their cameras on” (Note, R18)	7. Design included uses of pen and paper, and digital resources. Parallel use of email/ and chat, and GC when responding to students
R19	M: HD T: GD, GC	“The teacher reports on herself as being insecure, but continuously developing and understanding more” (Note, R19)	7. Design included uses of pen and paper, and digital resources. To weave elements into what they have previously done to create sensemaking of the tasks at hand.
R20	M: HD T: GD, GC	“Compensates halting design during synchronous lessons. Combines synchronous and asynchronous modes.” (Note R20)	4. Design for HD, for R20 was translated to in depth instruction during synchronous class, for students to be able to complete the asynchronous class. Thus, modes were combined, but not in parallel during one session.

* Time not accounted for is idle time, i.e. time students spend waiting.

** digital creation, in an innovative sense is here other than videos recorded and uploaded using mobile phone. Innovative digital creation could be programming, website creation, multi-media production with editing, digital social campaigns et cetera.

*** Google products in Google Workspace for education are abbreviated as follows: Google Meet (GM); Google Doc (GD); Google Classroom (GC). All documents are saved and collaborated on in Google Drive unless other was specified.