Ignore culture in counterinsurgency at your own Peril: Rhodesian propaganda warfare during the Zimbabwe war of liberation in Chilonga, Chiredzi South-East of Zimbabwe

ABSTRACT

This article discusses the Rhodesian Front regime propaganda warfare strategy during Zimbabwe’s war of liberation. It uses the case of the Chilonga area of Chiredzi located in the south-east of Zimbabwe to demonstrate that propaganda warfare was introduced as a measure to counter guerrilla infiltration and civilian cooperation with them. Drawing on ideas of military anthropology vis-à-vis the importance of cultural awareness in counterinsurgency, the paper argues that the efforts of the Rhodesian Front regime to use propaganda were fruitless. This is because they mostly ignored the culture of the Shangani, local people. Despite that, there were other reasons for the failure of the Rhodesian Front’s propaganda strategy, including the lack of conformity between politics and military action.

KEYWORDS:

• Propaganda warfare
• Rhodesian Front
• Zimbabwe War of Liberation
• culture
• guerrilla insurgents
• Chiredzi
• Chilonga

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes

1. See Bhebe, The ZAPU and ZANU; Catholic Commission for Peace and Justice, The Man in the Middle; Cilliers, Counterinsurgency in Rhodesia; Ellert, The Rhodesian Front War; Evans, “The Wretched of the Empire”; Flower, Serving Secretly; Frederikse, None but Ourselves; Martin and Johnson, The Struggle for Zimbabwe; Moorcraft and McLaughlin, The Rhodesian War; Msindo, “‘Winning Hearts and Minds’”; Palling, “Rhodesia’s propaganda war”; and Windrich, The Mass Media.

2. See, Alexander, “Things fall Apart,” 134.

3. Lamprecht, Government by Deception, 106.

4. Ibid.

5. Mills and Wilson, “Who Dares Loses?,” 27.

6. Standardized Generic Training Modules, 1.

7. Rathje, “The Definition of Culture,” 35.

8. Paul, Clarke and Grill, Victory has a Thousand Fathers, 36–75.

9. See, for example, McFate, “Anthropology and Counterinsurgency”; McFate, “The military utility”; and Heuser, “The Cultural Revolution.”

10. Paul et al., Paths to Victory, 2.

11. McFate, “Anthropology and Counterinsurgency”, 25.

12. Clemis, “The “Cultural Turn”,” 21.

13. Lucas, “The Morality,” 167–168.

14. Gonzalez, “Beyond the Human Terrain System.”

15. Autesserre, “International Peacekeeping and local success,” 125.

16. Tomforde, “Introduction,” 450–451; and Duffey, “Cultural Issues,” 153.

17. Autesserre, ‘International Peacekeeping and local success,’ 125–126.

18. McFate and Fondacaro, “Reflections on the Human Terrain System,” 65.

19. Lucas, “The Morality of Military Anthropology,” 168.

20. Sluka, “Curiouser and Curiouser,” 100; and McFate, “Anthropology and Counterinsurgency”, 25.

21. McFate, “The Utility of Understanding,” 43.

22. See above 18. 65.

23. Heuser, “The Cultural Revolution,” 159–160.

24. Paul, Clarke and Grill, Victory has a Thousand Fathers, 68.

25. Paul et al., Paths to Victory, 23–50.

26. Windrich, The Mass Media in the Struggle for Zimbabwe.

27. Palling, “Rhodesia’s propaganda war,”45.

28. Lowry, “The Impact of anti-communism,” 183.

29. Msindo, “‘Winning Hearts and Minds,’” 666.

30. Ibid., 671–672.

31. Ibid., 672.

32. Lowry, “The Impact of anti-Communism,” 181.

33. Ibid., 179.

34. For more personalities, see, Evans, “The Wretched of the Empire,” 179.

35. Ibid., 175.

36. Msindo, “‘Winning Hearts and Minds,’” 673.

37. Ibid.

38. Ndlovu, “Three waves of Media,” 32.

39. Msindo, “‘Winning Hearts and Minds,’” 674.

40. See above 27.

41. Ibid.

42. See above 36.

43. Ibid., 674.

44. Ibid., 678–680; Pasirayi, “The Media and Cultural Productions,” 51.

45. Moyo, “Chiefs part of Zanu PF’s political arsenal.”

46. Munemo, “The Search for Peace, Reconciliation and Unity in Zimbabwe,” 83, 101.

47. Central Intelligence Agency, Rhodesia Handbook.

48. Evans, “The Wretched of the Empire,” 184.

49. Khapoya, “African Political Actors in post-U.D.I. Rhodesia,” 130.

50. Nkomo, “Chiefs and Government,” 28; and Ngara, “The Zimbabwe Revolution,” 344.

51. Pasirayi, “The Media and Cultural Productions,” 51.

52. Evans, “The Wretched of the Empire,” 186.

53. Ibid., 189.

54. Hove, “War Legacy,” 195; and Shenjere-Nyabezi, “Imperceptible Realities,” 388.

55. Ibid.

56. Chisi, “Colonial economic disempowerment,” 167.

57. Tavuyanago, “Our fathers and grandfathers were born here,” 49–51.

58. National Archives of Zimbabwe (hereafter NAZ), “GON,” 10.

59. Chisi, “Colonial economic disempowerment,” 183–184.

60. Chauke, “Awareness as a process,” 45.

61. Shoko, “Komba.”

62. Sibanda, “Beyond Identity Scars,” 3.

63. Mandova, Mutonhori and Mudzanire, “The Cultural Significance and Relevance of the Shangani Rite,” 586.

64. Chauke, “Awareness as a process,” 45.

65. See above 62.

66. Hove, “A contribution,” 10.

67. NAZ, MS308/31/1, “Files on raids in Mozambique.”

68. Ibid.

69. Interview with Tomu.

70. Ibid.

71. Raeburn, Black Fire, 166–172.

72. NAZ, MS308/58/1, “Rhodesian Security.”

73. See map; Hove, “The Strategies and Tactics,” 23.

74. Ibid.

75. Hove, “Strategies and Tactics,” 23.

76. Cilliers, Counter-Insurgency, 65.

77. Ibid., 60–61.

78. Ibid., 61.

79. Ibid., 63.

80. Ibid., 64.

81. Jones and Smith, “Whose Hearts and Whose Minds?” 82.

82. Windrich, “Rhodesian Censorship,” 523.

83. Mashingaidze, “The Dynamics,” 99.

84. Rhodesian Herald, 1976.

85. The Special Branch was a section of the Central Intelligence Organisation that dealt with internal subversion and closely cooperated with the RSF’s special units such as the Selous Scouts and Special Air Service. See Melson, “Top Secret War.”

86. Interview with Taylor.

87. Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Rhodesia, Civil war in Rhodesia, 19.

88. Interview with Manjatame.

89. Ibid.

90. NAZ, MS536/11/14 The man and his ways.

91. Ibid.

92. Ibid.

93. Bratton, “Settler State.”

94. Arbuckle, “Rhodesia Bush War,” 29.

95. Ibid.

96. Ibid.

97. This is despite that there were inconsistencies on the capitalist bloc’s support for Rhodesia. See, Tsigo and Ndawana, “Unsung Heroes?”.

98. Frederikse, None but Ourselves, 113.

99. See above 88.

100. Dziva, “Methods used,” 57.

101. Hodges, “Counter Insurgency,” 20.

102. Frederikse, None but Ourselves, 79.

103. Seirlis, “Undoing the United Front?”; Tsigo and Ndawana, “Unsung heroes?”.

104. Interview with Chimuka.

105. Interview with Chilonga.

106. Ibid.

107. For guerrilla violence, see Henkin, “Stoning the Dogs.”

108. Godwin and Hancock, Rhodesians Never Die, 170.

109. Point raised by Wilfred Mhanda, a former ZANLA guerrilla leader while presenting his book: Dzino: Memories of a Freedom Fighter at the University of Zimbabwe’s History Department on 6 October 2011.

110. Interview with Moyo.

111. See above 5.

112. Dziva, “Methods used,” 59.

113. Willems, “Producing loyal citizens and entertaining volatile subjects”, 86.

114. Interview with Benson.

115. Frederikse, None but Ourselves, 94.

116. See above 105.

117. Interview with Chauke.

118. See above 86.

119. Ibid.

120. See, Rose, “Darwin,” 297.

121. See above 114.

122. Frederikse, None but Ourselves, 94.

123. Interview with Chilonga.

124. Ibid.

125. Dhura, “Propaganda Warfare,” 35.

126. ZANU Chimurenga Files.

127. See above 114.

128. Interview with a former senior officer in the RSF.

129. Shenjere-Nyabezi, “Imperceptible Realities.”

130. Andersson, “Administrators’ Knowledge,” 139.

131. Interview with Nkasha.

132. Wright, Valley of the Ironwoods, 386.

133. Willems, “Producing loyal citizens”, 86.

134. Ibid.

135. Interview with Madenyika.

136. Ibid.

137. Martin and Johnson, The Struggle for Zimbabwe, 105.

138. See above 88.

139. Ibid.

140. See above 114.

141. Frederikse, None but Ourselves, 131.

142. Cilliers, Counter-insurgency, 167.

143. Ndawana and Hove, “Traditional Leaders and Zimbabwe’s Liberation Struggle,” 145.

144. NAZ, MS311/28 Rhodesia Propaganda War.

145. See above 86.

146. Interview with Ingwani.

147. See above 110.

148. See above 146.

149. See above 117.

150. McCormick and Berger, “Ernesto (Che) Guevara,” 19.

151. See above 110.

152. See above 114.

153. Lonely, Rhodesia White Racism, 120.

154. Bhebe, The ZAPU and ZANU, 42.