An overview of outcome measures used in neuropsychological rehabilitation research on adults with acquired brain injury

Figures & data

Figure 1. Flow chart of studies and instruments included in the overreview.

Table 1. Neuropsychological tests categorized according to Lezak et al. (2012).

Domain	Subdomain	Category	Test	Number of times test is used in studies
Orientation & attention	Orientation	Time	Temporal Orientation Test	1
	Attention, concentration & tracking	General	Test of Everyday Attention:	3
			Map Search,	3
			Telephone Directory,	2
			Elevator count;	1
			Attention Process Training programme;	1
			d2 test of attentional performance;	1
			Konzentrations-Verlaufs-Test;	1
			Test of Attentional Performance,	3
			Divided attention;	3
			Behavioural Test of Inattentiveness in Daily Life;	1
			Inattentive Behaviour Task	2
		Reaction Time	Schenkenberg test;	1
			Simple Reaction Time;	2
			Go no-go test;	3
			Choice Reaction Time;	4
			Visual choice reaction time task;	1
			Computer based test of choice and reaction time;	1
			Cognispeed reaction time software;	1
			Visual Attention Task Overall Reaction Time;	1
			Wahl reaktions test;	1
			Complex reaction timer;	1
			Speed/accuracy trade off;	1
			Four choice reaction time task	1
		Vigilance	Ruff 2 & 7 of Selective attention test;	2
			Selective attention test;	1
			Digit Vigilance Test;	1
			Useful Field of View test;	1
			Gordon diagnostics of vigilance and distraction;	1
			Continuous Performance Task;	1
			Integrated Visual and Auditory Continuous Performance Test;	4
			Sustained Attention to Response Task;	3
			Sustained arousal and attention task	1
		Speed of information processing	Information intake task;	1
			Mental Slowness Observation Test;	1
			Tempo lern test;	1
			Adult Memory and Information Processing Battery	1
		Short term storage capacity/working memory	Stroop test;	9
			Stroop Neuropsychological Screening Test;	1
			Letter-Number Sequencing;	4
			Auditory Consonant Trigrams/Brown-Peterson Technique;	3
			Digit span;	10*
			Visual span;	3
			Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task;	13
			Paced Visual Serial Addition Task;	1
			Span board;	2
			2-back verbal working memory test;	1
			Tone counting task;	1
			The Memory Span & Tracking Task;	1
			Letter Number Sequencing Task;	1
			Räumlicher Suppressions-Arbeitsgedächtnis-Test	1
		Divided attention	Dual task	3
		Complex attention	Digit symbol test;	5
			Symbol Digit Modalities Test;	5
			Trail Making Test;	16*
			Matching accuracy test from “ ‘Brain Game Programme” ’;	1
			Color trail trial	1
Perception	Visual perception	General	Rivermead Perceptual Assessment Battery;	2
			Motor-free visual perception test	2
		Visual inattention	Letter cancellation test;	8
			Barrage test;	1
			Sentence reading test;	3
			Wundt-Jastrow Area illusion test;	1
			Behavioural Inattention Test;	10
			Mesulam Symbol Cancellation test;	3
			Mesulam Verbal Cancellation test;	1
			Line cancellation test;	3
			Line bisection test;	7
			Star Cancellation;	7
			Albert test;	1
			Bells test;	4
			Catherine Bergego Scale;	3
			Comb and Razor Test of personal neglect;	1
			Landmark test;	1
			o'clock test;	1
			Clock Drawing;	2
			Neglect test	1
		Visual recognition	Judgement of drawings test;	1
			Facial recognition;	1
			Oxford recurring faces test;	1
			Object recognition test;	1
			Spatial recognition test;	1
			Pattern recognition memory;	1
			Facial Expression Naming Task;	2
			Facial Expression Matching Task;	2
			Facial Expression Same/Different Task;	1
		Visuo-spatial/mental rotation	Money road map test	1
	Auditory perception		Dichotic listening;	1
			Auditory concentration test	1
Memory	General		Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test;	10
			Wechsler Memory Scale;	3*
			Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised;	4
			Wechsler Memory Scale-III;	3
			Memory assessment clinic (self and family) rating scale;	1
			Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Revised;	4*
			Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale;	1
			Raven's progressive matrices;	3
			Leistungsprüfsystem;	1
			Lern- und Gedächtnistest;	1
			Zahlen-verbindungstest;	1
			The brief multiparametric memory test	1
	Verbal memory		Vocabulary subtest of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale— – Third Edition;	1
			The Hong Kong List Learning Test;	2
			California Verbal Learning Test;	5
			California Verbal Learning Test 2;	2
			Verbal learning test;	1
			Text reproduction;	1
			Claeson-Dahl Task;	1
			Auditory Verbal Learning Test;	1
			Rey Auditory verbal learning test;	4*
			Hopkins Verbal Learning Test(-Revised);	4
			Logical Memory	1
	Visual memory		Name-Face Paired Associated Memory Test;	1
			Visual paired associates;	1
			Brief Visual Memory Test Revised;	3
			Picture span test;	1
			Contextual memory test;	1
			Benton Visual Retention Test;	1
			Sabadel Task;	1
	Remote memory		15-words test	3
Language/ communication	Aphasia		Western Aphasia Battery;	8*
			Aachen Aphasia Test;	4
			Psycholinguistic Assessments of Language Processing in Aphasia	5
			(Shortened) Porch Index of Communicative Ability;	2
			Communication Abilities in Daily Living;	3
			The awareness of social interference test;	5
			Communicative Effectiveness Index;	5
			Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination;	4
			American Speech-Language Hearing Association Functional Assessment of Communication Skills;	1
			Functional Communication Therapy Planner;	1
			Functional communication profile;	2
			Functional communication	1
			Listening span task;	2
			Stichting Afasie Nederland Test;	1
			Norsk Grunntest for Afasie;	1
			Aphasia Quotient;	2
			Chinese Rehabilitation Research Centre Aphasia Examination;	1
			Aphasia Battery for Chinese;	2
			Chinese Functional Communication Profile;	1
			Quick Aphasia Screening Test;	1
			Functional Outcomes Questionnaire for Aphasia;	1
			Profile of Functional Impairment in Communication	1
	Verbal expression		Categorical word fluency;	1
			Boston Naming Test;	3*
			Amsterdam-Nijmegen Everyday Language Test;	6
			Picture description with structure modelling;	1
			Caplan and Hanna’s Sentence Production Test;	1
			Object and Action Naming Battery;	1
			Probe picture naming	1
	Verbal comprehension		Semantic Association Test;	4
			Communicative Activity Log;	1
			Sentence and Picture comprehension from the Philadelphia Comprehension Battery;	1
			Speed and Capacity of Language Processing Test;	2
			Token Test;	1
			Sentences verification task (adapted from Speed of Comprehension Task);	1
	Verbal academic skills	Reading	Wechsler Test of Adult Reading;	4
			National Adult Reading Test	2
Construction	Drawing		Copy of a drawing;	1
			Rey Complex Figure Test	1
Concept formation & reasoning	Concept formation		Hayling & Brixton Tests;	2
			Category Test of Halstead-Reitan Battery;	1
			Wisconsin Card Sorting Test;	7
			Booklet Category Test	2
	Reasoning		Matrix-Reasoning subtest of the WAIS-III;	2
			Test of Strategic Learning	1
Executive functions & motor performance	Executive functions	Volition	Color word interference test	2
		Problem solving	Social Problem Solving; Means-Ends Problem Solving	1
			Design Fluency Test;	2
			D-KEFS, Tower test;	1
			Design and Verbal Fluency Switching;	1
			Frontal assessment battery;	1
			Category Fluency/semantic word fluency;	3
			Controlled Oral Word Association Test;	4
			Letter fluency;	2
		Wide range assessment	D-KEFS,	1
			Color-Word Interference Test;	7
			Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome,	5
			(Modified) Six Elements Test;	5
			Dysexecutive test;	2
			Hotel Task;	1
			Removals Task;	1
			Scales of Cognitive Ability for Traumatic Brain Injury;	1
			Executive Observational Scale; Executive Secretarial Task;	1
			JAAM virtual reality task;	1
			Mass transit railway
		Motor performance	Functional motor test	1
Neuropsychological test batteries			Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence;	2
			Wide Range Achievement Test 3;	1
			Woodcock-Johnson III	1

*Instruments recommended in Honan et al. (2017).

Table 2. Other outcome measures categorized according to Tate (2010) following the ICF framework.

Domain				Instrument	Number of times test is used in studies
Functioning and disability	Mental functions	Global	Temperament & personality	Beck Hopelessness Scale;	1
				Beck Scale for suicidal ideation;	1
				Personality Questionnaire	1
			Energy & Drive	Fatigue Severity Scale;	1*
				Apathy Evaluation Scale	1
		Specific	Attention	Attention questionnaire;	1
				Rating Scale of attentional behaviour;	2
				mental slowness questionnaire	1
			Memory	Memory Questionnaire;	2
				Memory Awareness Rating Scale;	1
				Everyday Memory Questionnaire;	2
				report of everyday memory failures	1
			Higher level cognitive functions	Patient Competency Rating Scale;	2*
				Self-Awareness of Deficits Interview;	2*
				Self-Awareness of Deficits Interview-	1
				Chinese version;	2
				Assessment of Awareness of Disability;	6
				Awareness Questionnaire;	1
				Clinician Rating Scale;	3
				Self-Regulation Skills Inventory;	1
				Social Problem Solving Inventory-Revised;	2
				Problem solving questionnaire
			Emotions	Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale;	3
				Social Phobia and anxiety inventory;	1
				Beck Anxiety Inventory;	1
				Hamilton Depression Rating Scale;	21
				Beck Depression Inventory (-II);	17
				Wakefield Depression Inventory;	1
				Montgomery Asberg Depression Rating Scale;	5
				Yale Single Question;	1
				Geriatric Depression Scale;	2
				Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale;	5
				Bradburn scale of psychologic wellbeing-affect balance scale;	1
				Depression scale;	1
				State Trait Anger Expression Inventory;	1
				Anger log;	1
				Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale;	10*
				Emotional State Questionnaire;	1
				visual analogue mood scales;	1
				Depression Anxiety and Stress scale;	4
				25-item affect-mood scale	1
		Multi-category		Mini-Mental State Examination;	13
				Stroke Unit Mental Status Examination;	1
				Lowenstein occupational therapy cognitive assessment;	1
				Neurobehavioural Cognitive Status Examination;	4
				Clinical Global Impression scale;	7
				Present State Exam;	1
				National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale;	1
				Scandinavian Stroke Scale;	5
				Chinese stroke scale;	1
				Profile of Mood states;	1
				Impact of event scale;	1
				Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale;	1
				DSM-III-R symptom checklist;	1
				dysexecutive questionnaire;	4
				Alzheimer's diseases assessment scale-cognitive subscale	1
	Neuromuscular and movement-related			Action Research Arm test;	1
				Motricity Index	2
	Multi-domain			Symptom Checklist 90-R;	7
				Patient Health Questionnaire;	1
				Rivermead Post-Concussion Symptoms Questionnaire	4
Activities & Participation	General tasks & demands			Perceived Stress Scale;	1
				Questionnaire on Resources and Stress;	2
				Maslach Burnout Inventory	2
	Language/communication			La Trobe Communication Questionnaire;	2*
				Self Communication Questionnaire
					1
	Mobility	Driving		Charron test;	1
				Center for fitness to drive evaluation and Car adaptations	1
	Interpersonal interaction & relationships			Behavioural-referenced Rating System of intermediate social skills-revised	2
	Major life areas			Employability Rating scale;	1
				Vocational Independence Scale;	1
				Vocational integration scale	1
	Multi-domain			Assessment of Motor and Process Skills;	3
				Barthel Index (and modified version);	21
				Functional Independence Measure;	12
				Independent Living Scale;	1
				Edmans ADL Index;	1
				ADL checklist (Therapist Observation Checklist);	1
				ADL observation-NL;	1
				ADL observation;-It	1
				ADL scale;	1
				Rivermead ADL;	1
				Canadian Occupational Performance Measure;	4
				Frenchay Activities Index;	1
				Bayer activities of daily living;	1
				adapted Nottingham stroke dressing ability;	1
				Nottingham Extended ADL scale;	2
				Lawton Instrumental Activities of Daily Living;	1
				Lawton IADL chinese version;	1
				Hong Kong Chinese version of the Lawton IADL scale;	1
				IADL scale;	1
				American Heart Association Stroke Outcome Classification;	1
				Functional Autonomy Rating Scale;	1
				Interest checklist;	1
				London Handicap Scale;	1
				Community Integration Questionnaire;	16
				Quality of community Integration Questionnaire;	1
				Role Resumption List;	1
				Role checklist;	1
				Craig Handicap Assessment and Reporting Technique;	3*
				Social Performance Survey Schedule;	1
				Sydney Psychosocial Reintegration Scale;	2*
				Social Communication skills Questionnaire-Adapted;	1
				Measure of Participation in Communication; Adapted Kagan scales;	1
				Adapted measure of participation in conversation;	1
				Adapted measure of support in conversation;	1
				Social activity interview;	1
				Weekly Social Activity Survey	1
Multi-dimensional				Rankin Scale;	4
				Neurobehavioral Functioning Inventory-R;	1
				Neurobehavioural Rating Scale;	1
				Clinician administered PTSD scale;	1
				General Health Questionnaire-28/12;	7
				Short-form health survey / Medical Outcome Scale Short Form 36;	9
				Disability Rating Scale;	2
				Functional status examination;	1
				Wahler Physical complaints checklist;	1
				Functional Assessment Measure;	3
				Cognitive Failure Questionnaire;	6
				Cognitive difficulties scale;	1
				Trauma Complaints List;	1
				Target Complaints list;	1
				Goal Attainment Scale;	5
				Treatment Goal Attainment;	1
				Katz adjustment scale;	1
				European Brain Injury Questionnaire;	1
				Brain injury community rehabilitation outcome-39;	1
				Rivermead Follow-up Questionnaire;	2
				Problem checklist;	2
				Glasgow outcome scale-extended;	1*
				Stroke Impact Scale;	1
				Sickness Impact Profile;	2
				Mayo Portland Adaptability Inventory;	3*
				Health and activity limitation survey;	1
				Clinical Dementia Rating Scale	1
Contextual	Environmental			UCLA loneliness;	1
				6-item Interpersonal Support evaluation List	1
	Personal			Physical self-description questionnaire;	2
				Self-perception in rehabilitation questionnaire;	2
				Coping Scale for Adults;	1
				Utrecht Coping List;	2
				Trier Coping Scale;	1
				The Ways of Coping scale revised;	1
				Holmes Rahe survey of recent experiences;	1
				Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale;	4*
				Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventories;	2
				Dutch Self-Esteem Questionnaire;	1
				Self-efficacy Questionnaire;	2
				general perceived self-efficacy scale;	1
				Stroke Expectations Questionnaire;	1
				Multidimensional Health locus of control scale;	1
				stress appraisal coping measure;	1
				knowledge of stroke questionnaire;	1
				treatment expectations scale	1
Concepts not covered by ICF	Quality of life			European Quality of Life (EuroQOL);	5*
				Quality of life after brain injury;	1
				Perceived Quality of life scale;	1
				Life Satisfaction questionnaire;	3
				Scale for subjective well-being for the elderly;	1
				Satisfaction with life scale;	1
				Job satisfaction checklist;	1
				stroke and aphasia quality of life scale;	1
				quality of life scale;	1
				scale of psychological well-being;	1
				patient global impression scale	1
Caregiver				Caregiver Strain Index;	1
				Modified burden scale	1

*Instruments recommended in Honan et al. (2017).

Table 3. Properties of most used instruments.

Instrument	ICF domain	Reference to information on psychometric properties in relation to use in brain injured people
Awareness Questionnaire	Function & disability, mental functions, specific, higher level cognitive functions	Tate (2010) and Smeets et al. (2012)
Hamilton Depression Rating Scale	Function & disability, mental functions, specific, emotions	Bech (2015) and Timmerby, Andersen, Søndergaard, Østergaard, and Bech (2017)
Beck Depression Inventory	Function & disability, mental functions, specific, emotions	Burton and Tyson (2015)
Montgomery Asberg Depression Rating Scale	Function & disability, mental functions, specific, emotions	Khan, Khan, Shankles, and Polissar (2002)
Hospital Anxiety and depression Scale	Function & disability, mental functions, specific, emotions	Burton and Tyson (2015)
Mini Mental State Examination	Function & disability, mental functions, multicategory	Tate (2010) and Van Heugten, Walton, and Hentschel (2015)
Clinical Global Impression Scale	Function & disability, mental functions, multicategory	Khan et al. (2002)
Scandinavian Stroke Scale	Function & disability, mental functions, multicategory	Lindenstrøm, Boysen, Christiansen, Hansen, and Nielson (1991)
Symptom CheckList-90 R	Function & disability, multi-domain	Carrozzino, Morberg, Siri, Pezzoli, and Bech (2018) and Bech, Bille, Møller, Hellström, and Østergaard (2014)
Barthel Index	Activity & Participation, multi-domain	Tate (2010)
Functional Independence Measure	Activity & Participation, multi-domain	Tate (2010)
Community Integration Questionnaire	Activity & Participation, multi-domain	Tate (2010)
General Health Questionnaire	Multi-dimensional	Graetz (1991)
Short Form-36	Multi-dimensional	Polinder, Haagsma, van Klaveren, Steyerberg, and van Beeck (2015)
Cognitive Failure Questionnaire	Multi-dimensional	Tate (2010)
Goal Attainment Scaling	Multi-dimensional	Grant and Ponsford (2014) and Bouwens, van Heugten, and Verhey (2009)
EuroQol	Quality of Life	Polinder et al. (2010)

Table

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