Physical Education in Bulgarian Schools, 1918–1944: the (re)production of masculinity and the re-creation of the national body

Abstract

This article traces the emergence of a new culture of the body through the physical education curriculum in schools in Bulgaria during the years following World War I. The analysis focuses on the rhetorical and institutional links between a cult of the body and the right-wing discourse on national regeneration which was dominated by a particular concept, image and norm of masculinity. The underlying theory and practice of physical training in state schools were reflections of the concern to strengthen the ‘national body’. The public perception of national strength incorporated masculine attributes which, in turn, influenced the construction of male and female gender roles that the physical education programme was designed to re-inforce. This article explores the masculinisation of Bulgarian national identity in terms of how it was ideologically constructed and reflected in the legislation, government acts and the school curriculum during the period from 1918 to 1944.

Notes

Velichko Georgiev (1907) Polozhenia i stermezhi na uchilishtnata higiena i uchitel-lekarskia institut u nas [Principles and purposes of school hygiene and of the School Physician's Institute in Bulgaria], Uchilishtna higiena, 9–10, pp. 19–28. All the translations are mine.

According to Ivan Elenkov, the core of the Bulgarian right-wing project in the 1920s and 1930s was to value the ‘native’ and ‘indigenous’ (rodno). It represented an anti-liberal attitude and ‘hardened into а teleological stance towards the mastering of the national future’. See Ivan Elenkov (1998) Rodno i dyasno. Prinos kam istoriyata na nesbadnatiya ‘desen proekt’ v Balgariya ot vremeto mezhdu dvete svetovni voyni [The native and the right wing. A contribution to the history of the unimplemented right-wing project in Bulgaria in the period between the two world wars] (Sofia: Lik), p. 41, pp. 53–54. On Bulgarian right-wing visions during the interwar period see also Ivan Elenkov & Rumen Daskalov (Eds) (1994) Zashto sme takiva? V tarsene na balgarskata kulturna identichnost [Why are we like this? In search of the Bulgarian cultural identity] (Sofia: Prosveta).

Nayden Sheytanov (1928) Kult na tyaloto. Borba za nova kultura i nov mirogled [Body cult: fight for a new culture and a new view of life] (Sofia: Darzhavna pechatnitsa), p. 5.

Damyan Dimov (1942) Osnovi na telesnoto vazpitanie. Opit za filosofiya na telesnata kultura [Fundamentals of physical education. An attempt at a philosophy of body culture] (Sofia: pechatnitsa Stopansko razvitie), pp. 3–4; p. 27.

Nayden Sheytanov (1890–1970): teacher and author, Ph.D. in Philosophy from the Leipzig University, influenced by the philosophy of life and neo-Hegelianism, a right-wing Bulgarian ideologist. See Elenkov, Rodno i dyasno, p. 9.

Damyan Dimov (1904–unknown): teacher, author, lecturer in the Third State Course on Physical and Moral Education (1935), editor of Uchilishten pregled [School Review], the official periodical of the Ministry of National Education. See Lyubomir Rusev (1936) Pedagogicheski rechnik [Pedagogical vademecum] (Sofia: pechatnitsa Herman pole), p. 100.

Nancy M. Wingfield & Maria Bucur (2006) Introduction: Gender and War in Twentieth-Century Eastern Europe, in Nancy M. Wingfield & Maria Bucur (Eds) Gender and war in twentieth-century Eastern Europe (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press), p. 6.

David D. Gilmore (1990) Manhood in the Making. Cultural Concepts of Masculinity (New Haven and London: Yale University Press), p. 217.

Ibid., p. 74.

Ibid., p. 106.

Wingfield & Bucur, ‘Introduction’, p. 2.

The term was introduced by Nayden Sheytanov. See Sheytanov, Kult na tyaloto, p. 5ff.

Ibid., p. 19.

Ibid., p. 8.

Krali Marko is a popular mythological figure in Bulgarian and Serbian folklore. His historical prototype was the medieval ruler Marko Marnyavchevich who in the 1360s ruled a kingdom in the Western Balkans. Although King Marko ended his life as an Ottoman vassal ruler, the epic tale created and preserved his image as a protector of the Christians in the Ottoman Empire and as an invincible hero.

Sheytanov, Kult na tyaloto, pp. 16–24.

Sheytanov, Kult na tyaloto, p. 15; K. Georgiev (1936) Telesnoto vazpitanie prechi li na umstvenia trud ili umstvenata rabota nesuvmestima li e s telesnite uprazhnenia i sporta [Is physical education an impediment to mental labour, or is mental work incompatible with physical exercises and sport?], Mediko-pedagogichesko spisanie za zdravno-sotsialni i vazpitatelni grizhi za deteto i yunoshata [Medico-Pedagogical Journal for Health, Social and Educational Care for the Children and the Youth], 3(5), pp. 255–257.

Dimov, Osnovi na telesnoto vazpitanie, p. 376.

Ibid., p. 21.

Ibid., p. 21. Sheytanov and Pamukchev also argued that men and women were ‘two equals in value and importance, agents of society and creators of the nation, state and humanity’. See Nayden Sheytanov & Nayden Pamukchiev (1941) Velikobalgarska mladezh. Problem, organizirane, nasoki [Great-Bulgarian youth: problems, organisation, directions] (Sofia: T. F. Chipev), p. 202.

Dimov, Osnovi na telesnoto vazpitanie, p. 212.

Ibid., p. 219.

Ibid.

Ibid., p. 212.

See Sheytanov & Pamukchiev, Velikobalgarska mladezh, p. 22.

Dimov, Osnovi na telesnoto vazpitanie, p. 200.

Ibid., p. 215.

See Sheytanov & Pamukchiev, Velikobalgarska mladezh, p. 72.

Ibid., pp. 100–101.

Ibid., p. 100.

Ibid., p. 110, 112. The Bulgarian word hayduks can be translated as ‘rebels’, and bagatur is an Iranian word for a military title.

Ibid., p. 72.

Ibid., p. 202.

Marina Dobreva (1939) Damski cheti pri sayuza ‘Yunak’ [Female detachments at the Yunak Union], in S. Chakarov (Ed.) Sayuz Yunak. Yubileen sbornik. 1898–1938, [Yunak Union: a jubilee collection, 1898–1938] (Sofia: pechatnitsa Hudozhnik), p. 153.

Sheytanov & Pamukchiev, Velikobalgarska mladezh, p. 98.

Sheytanov, Kult na tyaloto, p. 56.

Dobreva, Damski cheti, p. 153.

Mihail Geraskov (1941) Telesnoto vazpitanie ot narodnostno gledishte [Physical education from a national point of view] (Sofia: pechatnitsa Hudozhnik), p. 38.

Anton Popov (1942) Obrazovanie i radost [Education and joy], Mediko-pedagogichesko spisanie [Medico-Pedagogical Journal], 9(1), p. 11.

Botyu Shanov (1942) Vazpitanie na vazpitatelite [Education of the educators], Mediko-pedagogichesko spisanie, 9(3), p. 135.

Ibid.

The Bulgarian word yunak embraces the meanings of ‘brave man’, ‘champion’ and ‘hero’.

Zoya Apostolova (2003) Gimnasticheskite druzhestva v Balgaria i prinosat na ‘Dunavski yunak – Lom’ za razvitieto na fizicheskata kultura, 1895–1944 [The gymnastic associations in Bulgaria and the contribution of Dunabian Yunak-Lom to the development of physical culture, 1895–1944] (Sofia: Akademichno izdatelstvo ‘Marin Drinov’), p. 72.

Nataliya Petrova (1991) Sistemi za fizichesko vazpitanie. Uchilishtnoto vazpitanie v Balgaria. 1878–1944 [Systems for physical education. School education in Bulgaria, 1878–1944] (Sofia: NSA), p. 57.

See Circular Letter No. 4425 of 16 May 1897, of the Ministry of National Education, in Nikola Todorov Balabanov & Andrey Manev (Eds) (1943) Sbornik s otbrani okrazhni ot Osvobozhdenieto do kraya na 1942 g. [Collection of selected Circular Letters from the liberation until the end of 1942], vol. I (Sofia: Ministerstvo na narodnoto prosveshtenie), pp. 388–393.

Circular Letter No. 2754 of 13 March 1904, of the Ministry of National Education, in Balabanov & Manev, Sbornik s otbrani okrazhni, p. 772.

Ivan Shishmanov (1904) Osnovite na uchilishtnata mi politika i byudzhetat za 1904 g. [The basic principles of my school policy and the 1904 Budget] (Sofia: pechatnitsa Prosveshtenie), p. 22.

Stefan Chakarov (1939) Osnovavane i razvoy na Sayuza ‘Yunak’ [Foundation and history of the Yunak Union], in Chakarov, Sayuz Yunak, p. 43.

Vassil Tsonkov (1955) Materiali po istoria na fizicheskata kultura v Balgaria (1878–1944) [Materials on the history of physical culture in Bulgaria, 1878–1944] (Sofia: Fizkultura), p. 59.

See Programa za osnovnite uchilishta [Syllabus for the Primary Schools] (1921) (Sofia: Darzhavna pechatnitsa), p. 15.

See Programa za narodnite sredni uchilishta (gimnazii i pedagogocheski uchilishta) [Syllabus for the National Secondary Schools (High Schools and Pedagogical Schools)] (1925) (Sofia: Darzhavna pechatnitsa).

See Programa za srednite spetsialni uchilishta [Syllabus for the Vocational Schools] (Sofia: Darzhavna pechatnitsa) (1933), p. 77.

Programa za narodnite osnovni uchilishta (Syllabus for the National Primary Schools) (1935) (Sofia: Darzhavna pechatnitsa), p. 88.

See Programa za narodnite sredni uchilishta, p. 113.

The new trends in the development of school physical training were declared to be among the reasons for the gradual decrease in state support for the Yunak Union as a central agent for the organisation of school gymnastics. In 1928 the Yunak Union was forbidden to advertise its training courses as school teachers' courses. See Petrova, Sistemi za fizichesko vazpitanie, p. 57.

T. Tsachev (1937) Oshte za vuzpitanieto chrez sastezatelni igri [More on education via competitive games], Mediko-pedagogichesko spisanie, 4(6), p. 321.

Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 11.

Demokraticheski sgovor (Democratic Accord) was a right-wing political organisation which embraced several political parties. From 1923, when it was established, until 1931 it was the main ruling party in the country.

Quoted in the collection Telesno vazpitanie v Balgariya [Physical education in Bulgaria] (1936) (Sofia: Balgarski olimpiyski komitet), pp. 40–45.

Telesno vazpitanie v Balgariya, p. 40.

See Art. 3. Ibid., p. 40.

Ibid.

See Art. 5–8. Ibid., p. 40.

See Art. 3. Ibid., p. 40.

Ibid.

See Art. 14. Ibid., p. 42.

Petrova, Sistemi za fizichesko vazpitanie, pp. 44–45.

Gilmore, Manhood in the Making, p. 150.

Quoted in Vassil Girginov & Peter Bankov (2000) Fascist Political Athletes and the Body Politic: Bulgaria reborn, in J. A. Mangan (Ed.) Superman Supreme. Fascist Body as Political Icon. Global Racism (London: Frank Cass), p. 91.

Quoted in Sheitanov & Pamukchiev, Velikobalgarska mladezh, pp. 180–190.

See Art. 2, para. 1. Ibid., p. 180.

See Art. 2, section ‘a’. Ibid.

See Art. 2, section ‘d’. Ibid.

See Art. 2, section ‘g’. Ibid.

See Art. 2, section ‘h’. Ibid.

See Art. 3. Ibid.

See Wingfield & Bucur, ‘Introduction’, p. 9. The authors refer to the welfare efforts of the ‘total state’ which arose after World War I in East European countries. The same argument is also valid for Bulgarian state policy and its ideological promoters in the field of physical education during the interwar period and especially on the eve of World War II.

On 19 May 1934 the Voenen sayuz [Military union] and the right-wing organisation Zveno [Link] succeeded in their coup d'état. The new government of Kimon Georgiev (1882–1969) dismissed the parliament and banned all political parties. Although in 1935 King Boris III (1894–1943) removed Georgiev, until 1944, when the communists came to power, the political situation in the country was determined by an authoritarian regime.

Dimov, Osnovi na telesnoto vazpitanie, p. 8.

See Wingfield & Bucur, ‘Introduction’, p. 9.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Gergana Mircheva

Gergana Mircheva is a graduate in Law and in Cultural Studies from the University of Sofia. She is currently a doctoral student in the History of Modern Bulgarian Culture at the Department of History and Theory of Culture, University of Sofia.