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ABSTRACT
This article puts colonial social reform and the ‘civilizing mission’ under new light by examining the Bombay Female Normal School (BFNS) and its short existence under J. Stuart Richmond, a certified British schoolmistress, from 1868 to 1872. By doing so, this article reveals Richmond’s unfitness for her role as a bearer of ‘the white woman’s burden’ but also the ways Raj bureaucrats and imperial reformers carefully curated information about the ‘civilizing mission’ for British audiences. This article interrogates the narratives told about the BFNS in the wake of its closing and showcases the ways in which Bombay’s educational establishment shifted attention away from the shortcomings of their ‘civilizing mission’ and the criminality of Richmond, to instead cast blame on Indians and uphold cruel colonial stereotypes. The ways Raj bureaucrats and social reformers shielded Richmond’s behavior from view highlights the ways the ‘civilizing mission’ required careful curation and thus deserves historical reappraisal today.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my anonymous reviewers and my past and present colleagues who have provided edits and comments on this article including Eric Lewis, Leanne MacDonald, Kristen Waha, Robert Sullivan, and Paul Ocobock. Research for this project was funded by Grove City College, the Nanovic Institute for European Studies at the University of Notre Dame, and the Fulbright-Nehru Research Fellowship.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Jennifer Phegley, ‘Clearing Away “The Briars and Brambles”: The Education and Professionalization of “Cornhill Magazine’s” Women Readers, 1860–1865’, Victorian Periodicals Review 33, no. 1 (Spring 2000): 24.
2 Borough Road College, associated with the British and Foreign School Society, allowed women to train at their institution beginning around 1812, long before Cambridge’s Girton College became the first residential college for women in 1869.
3 ‘Letter from J. Stuart Richmond to E.S.J. Wilks, 24 June 1867’, British and Foreign School Society Foreign Correspondence, India and Ceylon, BFSS/1/5/1/7/1/17, Brunel University Archives, London.
4 Mary Carpenter, Six Months in India (London: Longmans & Company, 1868).
5 N.C. Sargant, Mary Carpenter in India (Self-published, A.J. Sargant, 1987).
6 Carpenter’s schools had a more complicated reputation in India than with publics far away from the subcontinent. In India, Carpenter appealed more to small number of Indian reformers in groups like the Brahmo Samaj than to British missionaries, Raj bureaucrats, and memsahibs.
7 Carpenter, Six Months in India, 246.
8 For more information about these Indian-led reforms see Sanjay Seth, Subject Lessons: The Western Education of Colonial India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2008) and Jana Tschurenev, Empire, Civil Society, and the Beginnings of Colonial Education in India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019).
9 For information on Carpenter’s career in India see Antoinette Burton, ‘Family Drama of Colonial Reform in Mary Carpenter’s “Six Months in India”’, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 20, no. 3 (1995): 545–74; ‘The White Woman’s Burden: British Feminists and the Indian Woman, 1865–1915’, Women’s Studies International Forum 13, no. 4 (1990): 295–308; and N.C. Sargant, Mary Carpenter in India (Self-published, A.J. Sargant, 1987).
10 ‘Miss Stuart Richmond, Head Mistress of the Bombay Female Normal School’, Bombay Education Department, Volume 3 of 1872, No. 247, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai.
11 K.M. Chatfield to C. Gonne, 11 September 1872, Bombay Education Department, Volume 3 of 1872, No. 247, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai.
12 Minute No. 831, 11 July 1872, Bombay Education Department, Volume 3 of 1872, No. 3, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai.
13 Chatfield to Gonne, 11 September 1872.
14 Ibid.
15 Mary Carpenter published Six Months in India to great acclaim in 1868 and then in 1870 co-founded the National Indian Association with Brahmo Samaj leader K.C. Sen.
16 Tim Allender, Learning Femininity in Colonial India, 1820–1932 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2015); Norman Carr Sargant, ‘India, My Appointed Place: An Account of Mary Carpenter’s Four Journeys to India’, Norman Carr Sargant Papers, India Office Records and Private Papers, Mss Eur Photo Eur 280, British Library; and Shefali Chandra, The Sexual Life of English: Languages of Caste and Desire in Colonial India (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2012).
17 Jurgen Osterhammel, Europe, the ‘West,’ and the Civilizing Mission: The 2005 Annual Lecture (London: The German Historical Institute London, 2006), 8.
18 P.J. Cain, ‘Character, “Ordered Liberty”, and the Mission to Civilize: British Moral Justification of Empire, 1870–1914’, The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 40, no. 4 (2012).
19 Micheal Mann, ‘“Torchbearers Upon the Path of Progress”: Britain’s Ideology of “Moral and Material Progress” in India: An Introductory Essay’, in Colonialism as Civilizing Mission: Cultural Ideology in British India, ed. Harald Fischer-Tiné and Michael Mann (London: Anthem Press, 2004), 6.
20 Priya Satia, Time’s Monster: How History Makes History (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2020), 4.
21 Two recent works in the neo-colonial vein have been Jeremy Black, Imperial Legacies: The British Empire Around the World (New York: Encounter Books, 2019) and Bruce Gilley, ‘The Case for Colonialism’, Third World Quarterly (September 2017): 1–17. These works were so out of sync with historical opinion that they were instantly controversial.
22 Alice Conklin, A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa 1895–1930 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998); Harald Fischer-Tiné and Michael Mann, ed., Colonialism as Civilizing Mission: Cultural Ideology in British India (London: Anthem Press, 2004); Miguel Bandeira Jerfnimo, The ‘Civilizing Mission’ of Portuguese Colonialism, 1870–1930 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015).
23 Micheal Mann, ‘Torchbearers Upon the Path of Progress’, 4.
24 For more information on Roy, see Lata Mani, Contentious Traditions: The Debate on Sati in Colonial India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998) and Jana Tschurenev, ‘Between Non-Interference in Matters of Religion and the Civilizing Mission: The Prohibition of Suttee in 1829’, in Colonialism as Civilizing Mission: Cultural Ideology in British India, ed. Harald Fischer-Tiné and Michael Mann (London: Anthem Press, 2004), 68–93. For Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar see Lucy Carroll, ‘Law, Custom, and Statutory Social Reform: The Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act of 1856’, in Women and Social Reform in Modern India: A Reader, ed. Sumit Sarkar and Tanika Sarkar (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008), 78–99.
25 Gautam Chakravarty, Indian Mutiny and the British Imagination (New Delhi: Foundation Books, 2006); Christopher Herbert, War of No Pity: The Indian Mutiny and Victorian Trauma (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010); and Thomas Metcalf, Aftermath of a Revolt: India, 1857–1970 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016).
26 For more information on Malabari’s reforms, see Tanika Sarkar, Hindu Wife, Hindu Nation: Community, Religion, and Cultural Nationalism (New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2001).
27 Sarkar, Hindu Wife, Hindu Nation, 231.
28 Ibid., 219.
29 Satia, Time’s Monster, 3.
30 Ibid., 109.
31 Ibid., 131.
32 Ibid.
33 Indrani Sen, Gendered Transactions: The White Woman in Colonial India, c. 1820–1930 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2017), 23.
34 Julia Clancy-Smith and Frances Gouda, eds., Domesticating the Empire: Race, Gender, and Family Life in French and Dutch Colonialism (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1998), 7–8.
35 David Alderson, Mansex Fine: Religion, Manliness, and Imperialism in Nineteenth-Century British Culture (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998); Bradley Deane, Masculinity and the New Imperialism: Rewriting Manhood in British Popular Literature, 1870–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014); and J.A. Mangan, ‘Manufactured’ Masculinity: Making Imperial Manliness, Morality, and Militarism (Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2012). For scholarship on the rendering of colonial men as effeminate see Mrinalini Sinha, Colonial Masculinity: The “Manly Englishman” and the “Effeminate” Bengali in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998).
36 Sen, Gendered Transactions, 5.
37 Kenneth Ballhatchet, Race, Sex, and Class Under the Raj: Imperial Attitudes and Policies and Their Critics, 1793–1905 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980) and Ronald Hyam, ‘Empire and Sexual Opportunity’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 14, no. 2 (1986): 34–90.
38 Mark Berger, ‘Imperialism and Sexual Exploitation: A Response to Ronald Hyam’s “Empire and Sexual Opportunity”’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 17, no. 1: 83–89.
39 Ann Laura Stoler, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010). For scholarship concerning the contemporary deployments of white femininity see Rafia Zakaria, Against White Feminism: Notes on Disruption (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2021) and Kyla Schuller, The Trouble with White Women (New York: Bold Type Books, 2021).
40 For an example of this type of scholarship pertaining to Mary Carpenter, see Jo Manton, Mary Carpenter and the Children of the Streets (London: Heinemann, 1976). See also Marian Fowler, Below the Peacock Fan: First Ladies of the Raj (Markham, Ontario: Penguin Books Canada, 1987).
41 Valerie Amos and Pratibha Parmar, ‘Challenging Imperial Feminism’, Feminist Review 17 (Autumn 1984): 3–19.
42 Lata Mani, ‘Contentious Traditions: The Debate on Sati in Colonial India’, in Recasting Women: Essays in Indian Colonial History, ed. Kumkum Sangari and Sudesh Vaid (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1990); and Contentious Traditions: The Debate on Sati in Colonial India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
43 Dea Birkett, ‘The White Woman’s Burden in the White Man’s Grave: The Introduction of British Nurses in Colonial West Africa’, in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Napur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992), 177–89; Jane Haggis, ‘White Women and Colonialism: Towards A Non-Recuperative History’, in Gender and Imperialism, ed. Clare Midgley (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998), 45–78; Mrinalini Sinha, ‘Chathams, Pitts, and Gladstones in Petticoats: The Politics of Gender and Race in the Illbert Bill Controversy, 1883–1884’, in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Napur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992), 98–117; Vron Ware, Beyond the Pale: White Women, Racism, and History (London: Verso, 1992).
44 Antoinette Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865–1915 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 7.
45 The two major collections in this field of study were Napur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel, eds., Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992) and Clare Midgley, ed., Gender and Imperialism (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998).
46 Strobel, European Women and the Second British Empire, VIII–IX.
47 Strobel, European Women, XII and 47.
48 Barbara N. Ramusack, ‘Cultural Missionaries, Maternal Imperialists, Female Allies: British Women Activists in India, 1865–1945’, in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Napur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992), 133.
49 Ramusack, ‘Cultural Missionaries’, 133.
50 Jayawardena, The White Woman’s Other Burden, 2.
51 Ibid., 5.
52 Harald Fischer-Tine, Stefan Huebner, and Ian Tyrrell, eds., Spreading Protestant Modernity: Global Perspectives on the Social Work of the YMCA and YWCA, 1889–1970 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2021) Jane Lydon, Imperial Emotions: The Politics of Empathy Across the British Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019); Emily J. Manktelow, Missionary Families: Race, Gender and Generation on the Spiritual Frontier (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2013) and Clare Midgley, ‘Female Emancipation in an Imperial Frame: English Women and the Campaign Against Sati in India’, Women’s History Review 9, no. 1 (2000): 95–121.
53 Nilanjana Paul, ‘The Indian Mission of the Institute of Blessed Virgin Mary (IBVM) Nuns: Convents, Curriculum, and Indian Women’, Journal of International Women’s Studies 24, no. 2 (January 2022): Article 2.
54 Coralie Younger, Wicked Women of the Raj: European Women Who Broke Society’s Rules and Married Indian Princes (Delhi: Harper Collins Publishers India, 2003).
55 Antoinette Burton, ‘The White Woman’s Burden’, 302.
56 Stephanie E. Jones-Rogers, They Were Her Property: White Women as Slave Owners in the American South (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2019) and Christine Walker, Jamaica Ladies: Female Slaveholders and the Creation of Britain’s Atlantic Empire (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2020).
57 Jones-Rogers, They Were Her Property, 205.
58 Karuna Mantena, Alibis of Empire: Henry Maine and the Ends of Liberal Imperialism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010).
59 Memorandum No. 160 (15), 25 March 1870, Bombay Proceedings, India Office Records and Private Papers, IOR/P/441/58, Indian Office Archives, British Library, London, UK.
60 J. Stuart Richmond to E.S.J. Wilks, 24 June 1867, British and Foreign School Society Foreign Correspondence, India and Ceylon, BFSS/1/5/1/7/1/17, Brunel University Archives, London.
61 J. Stuart Richmond to Alfred Bourne, 24 June 1868, British and Foreign School Society Foreign Correspondence, India and Ceylon, BFSS/1/5/1/7/1/20, Brunel University Archives, London.
62 J. Stuart Richmond to E.S.J. Wilks, 24 June 1867.
63 J. Stuart Richmond to Alfred Bourne, 24 June 1868.
64 J. Stuart Richmond to Alfred Bourne, 24 June 1868 and Mary Carpenter to Alfred Bourne, 21 June 1868, British and Foreign School Society Foreign Correspondence, India and Ceylon, BFSS/1/5/1/7/1/28, Brunel University Archives, London.
65 For one example of this see Frances Power Cobbe, Life of Frances Power Cobbe (London: Richard Bentley & Son, 1894), 282–83.
66 Cobbe, Life of Frances Power Cobbe, 277.
67 Mary Carpenter to T. Waddingham, 19 November 1868, Bombay Proceedings, India Office Records and Private Papers, IOR/P/441/58, Indian Office Archives, British Library, London.
68 Memorandum No. 4999, 15 March 1869, Bombay Proceedings, India Office Records and Private Papers, IOR/P/441/55, Indian Office Archives, British Library, London.
69 Memorandum No. 4999, 15 March 1869.
70 Ibid.
71 Ibid.
72 Ibid.
73 Ibid.
74 Memorandum No. 52 (21), 29 September 1869, Bombay Proceedings, India Office Records and Private Papers, IOR/P/441/55, Indian Office Archives, British Library, London.
75 For all conversions of Indian Rupees to British Pounds, this article relies on the research of Charles Weintraub and Kurt Schuler who calculate that in 1868 the Currency Board in India established that £1 equaled ₹10.25. (Charles Weintraub and Kurt Schuler, ‘India’s Paper Currency Department (1862–1935) as a Quasi Currency Board’, Indian Journal of Economics & Business 13, no. 1 (April 2014)).
76 Kathryn Hughes, The Victorian Governess (London: Hambledon Press, 1993), 155 and Mary Carpenter to Alfred Bourne, 8 February 1873, British and Foreign School Society Foreign Correspondence, India and Ceylon, BFSS/1/5/1/7/1/34, Brunel University Archives, London.
77 Chandra, Sexual Life of English, 35.
78 J.B. Piele to C. Gonne, 2 September 1869, Bombay Proceedings, India Office Records and Private Papers, IOR/P/441/55, Indian Office Archives, British Library, London.
79 J.B. Piele to C. Gonne, 2 September 1869.
80 Ibid.
81 Tschurenev, Empire, Civil Society, and the Beginnings, 285.
82 Allender, Learning Femininity, 93.
83 Ibid., 93.
84 C. Gonne to J.B. Piele, 22 July 1869, Bombay Proceedings, India Office Records and Private Papers, IOR/P/441/55, Indian Office Archives, British Library, London.
85 Report of the Department of Public Instruction in the Bombay Presidency for the Year 1870–71 (Bombay: Education Society’s Press, 1871), 88.
86 Tschurenev, Empire, Civil Society, and the Beginnings, 108.
87 Chandra, Sexual Life of English, 26.
88 Tschurenev, Empire, Civil Society, and the Beginnings, 17.
89 Ibid., 284.
90 Chandra, The Sexual Life of English, 50.
91 ‘Mary Carpenter to Florence Nightingale, 18 August 1868’, Nightingale Papers, Volume LI, Add MS 45789: 1856–1879, British Library, London.
92 ‘The Female Normal School’, Homeward Mail from India, China and the East, 20 June 1870.
93 Chandra, Sexual Life of English, 51.
94 For more information on these debates see Yaduvansh Bahadur Mathur, Women’s Education in India, 1813–1966 (New York: Asia Publishing House, 1973) and Sanjay Seth, Subject Lessons: The Western Education of Colonial India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2008).
95 K.M. Chatfield to C. Gonne, 6 June 1872, Bombay Education Department, Volume 3 of 1872, No. 247, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai and ‘Letter from Waddingham to K.M. Chatfield, 18 January 1872’, Bombay Education Department, Volume 3 of 1872, No. 247, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai.
96 ‘Review: Goozeratee Catechism on Natural History by a Parsee Lady’, The Journal of the National Indian Association, August 1872 (No. 20), 149.
97 J.B. Peile to S. Shapoorjee, 25 January 1872, Bombay Education Department, Volume 3 of 1872, No. 247, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai.
98 ‘Miss Stuart Richmond, Head Mistress of the Bombay Female Normal School’, Bombay Education Department, Volume 3 of 1872, No. 247, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai.
99 ‘Miss Stuart Richmond, Head Mistress of the Bombay Female Normal School’.
100 Ibid.
101 Perle Memorandum, 27 May 1872, Bombay Education Department, Volume 3 of 1872, No. 247, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai.
102 Perle Memorandum, 27 May 1872.
103 T. Waddingham to K.M. Chatfield, 18 January 1872, Bombay Education Department, Volume 3 of 1872, No. 247, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai.
104 Tschurenev, Empire, Civil Society, and the Beginnings, 175.
105 Miss Stuart Richmond, Head Mistress of the Bombay Female Normal School,” Bombay Education Department, Volume 3 of 1872, No. 247, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai.
106 T. Waddingham to K.M. Chatfield, 18 January 1872.
107 Ibid.
108 Memorandum No. 831 (25), 11 July 1872, Bombay Proceedings, India Office Records and Private Papers, IOR/P/445, Indian Office Archives, British Library, London.
109 Minute No. 831, 11 July 1872, Bombay Education Department, Volume 3 of 1872, No. 3, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai.
110 ‘Memorandum No. 831 (25), 11 July 1872’, Bombay Proceedings, India Office Records and Private Papers, IOR/P/445, Indian Office Archives, British Library, London.
111 ‘Latest Intelligence’, The Times of India, 18 July 1872.
112 K.M. Chatfield to C. Gonne, 23 July 1872, Bombay Education Department, Volume 3 of 1872, No. 247, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai.
113 ‘Latest Intelligence’, The Times of India, 18 July 1872.
114 ‘Editorial Notes’, The Indian Statesman, 18 July 1872.
115 K.M. Chatfield to C. Gonne, 23 July 1872.
116 Ibid.
117 ‘Financial Department Minute No.3758’, Bombay Education Department, Volume 3 of 1872, No. 247, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai.
118 K.M. Chatfield to C. Gonne, 11 September 1872, Bombay Education Department, Volume 3 of 1872, No. 247, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai.
119 K.M. Chatfield to C. Gonne, 11 September 1872.
120 Ibid.
121 Ibid.
122 Tschurenev, Empire, Civil Society, and the Beginnings, 256.
123 K.M. Chatfield to C. Gonne, 7 November 1872, Bombay Education Department, Volume 3 of 1872, No. 247, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai, India and ‘Memorandum No. 21 (66), 30 March 1875’, Bombay Education Department, Volume 21 of 1875, No. 66, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai.
124 Aravind Ganachari, ‘Mary Carpenter and the Reform Movement in Western India’, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 59 (1998): 600.
125 ‘Memorandum No. 272 (12), 17 March 1873’, Bombay Proceedings, India Office Records and Private Papers, IOR/P/446, Indian Office Archives, British Library, London.
126 ‘Appendix C’, in ‘The Report for 1873 of the Alexandria Native Girls’ English Institution Briefly Describing the Necessity of a Female Normal School in Bombay’, Bombay Education Department, Volume 19 of 1874, No. 119, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai.
127 Here, Bhownagree illustrates the accuracy of Gayatri Spivak’s famous aphorism that Indian social reform should be summarized as ‘white women conferring with brown men over the fate of brown women’. (Gayatri Spivak, ‘Can the Subaltern Speak?’ in Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, ed. Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988), 550.)
128 ‘M.M. Bhownaggree to C. Gonne, 6 November 1874’, Bombay Education Department, Volume 19 of 1874, No. 119, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai.
129 M.M. Bhownaggree to C. Gonne, 6 November 1874.
130 ‘The Project of the Amalgamation of Female Normal School with the Alexandria Institution’, Bombay Education Department, Volume 18 of 1874, No. 119, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai.
131 K.M. Chatfield to C. Gonne, 19 December 1872, Bombay Education Department, Volume 22 of 1873, No. 54, State Archives of Maharashtra, Mumbai.
132 J.B. Peile to S. Shapoorjee, 25 January 1872.
133 ‘The Project of the Amalgamation of Female Normal School with the Alexandria Institution’.
134 Ibid.
135 Chandra, Sexual Life of English, 54.
136 Memorandum No. 1253 (1), 2 November 1873, Bombay Proceedings, India Office Records and Private Papers, IOR/P/445, Indian Office Archives, British Library, London.
137 Memorandum No. 1253 (1), 2 November 1873.
138 ‘Secular Education in India’, The Journal of the National Indian Association, June 1873 (No. 30), 306.
139 Charles H. A. Dall to William James, 31 August 1870, Charles H. A. Dall Papers, 1836–1885, BMS 483/6 (13), Harvard Divinity School Special Collections, Cambridge, MA, USA.
140 ‘Female Education in India’, The Journal of the National Indian Association, November 1876 (No. 71), 335.
141 J. Estlin Carpenter, The Life and Work of Mary Carpenter (London: Macmillan, 1879), 357.
142 Allender, Learning Femininity in Colonial India, 289–39.
143 Sargant, India, My Appointed Place, 111.
144 Chandra, Sexual Life of English, 54.
145 Ibid., 52.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Elizabeth A. Baker
Elizabeth A. Baker is an Assistant Professor of Modern European and Global History at Grove City College in Pennsylvania, USA. She is the author of the forthcoming Mary Carpenter, Gender, and Victorian Social Reform at “Home” and Abroad to be published by Routledge in 2025. She is the co-editor of To See the World Whole: Key Readings in the History of Global History (Bloomsbury Academic, 2023) and her work appeared in The British Women’s Suffrage Campaign: National and International Perspectives, co-edited by June Purvis and June Hannam (Routledge Press, 2020). Email: [email protected].