The precarity of gender, migration, and locations: case studies from Bangladesh and Nepal

Figures & data

Table 1. Typology of spaces, levels of precarity, and opportunities for empowerment.

	Type of space	Possible reasons for precarity	Potential for agency	Empowerment and human rights
Home	Private	Domestic and intimate partner violence; family violence; financial insecurity; pressure to migrate	Greater Agency: Family permission and support;	Few opportunities if there are no social support programs or outreach. Serial migration may become a preferred option due to unsafe/unhappy family life
			Lower Agency Mobility: Family that is controlling of women; strict gender norms; women may choose to flee violent or unhappy household
Community	Public	Poverty and the lack of jobs and incomes locally	Greater Agency: other migrant women in the community providing information and network; to seek better income opportunities overseas	Potential empowerment and knowledge about rights through social network and local women/migrant workers’ services
			Lower Agency: stigma around women and paid work
Pre-departure sites (e.g. training centres; visa offices; airports)	Public	Sexual harassment and exploitation by migrant agents; financial extortion at airports; lack of safe accommodation during pre-departure training	Greater Agency: forming friendships and networks at pre-departure trainings	If pre-departure training is well-designed and delivered, it will help women feel more knowledgeable and confident about their rights and avenues to seek help
			Lower Agency: A transitory space. As women move from these transitory spaces, help-seeking and chances are limited
Workplace	Public, yet the nature of the work performed is feminised and largely at someone’s home	Sexual and gender-based violence; unfair and unsafe work conditions; forced or indentured labour	Greater Agency: Women are supported by ethical employers	Potentially empowering, as women earn good income and learn new skills, languages, and experiences.
			Low Agency: If under the Kafala system; women’s passports and relevant documents are held by the employer – agency is greatly constrained
				Potentially disempowering and human rights violated if the employer and recruiting agents are abusive
Migration Residence	Private, but women may have to lodge with employers, which means lack of privacy. If lodging with other migrant women, it is a shared space	If living at employer’s home, can become imprisoned or lack personal spaces	Greater Agency: Able to plan and save money, enjoy the migration experience as women feel safe in their temporary home	Empowering if women feel safe in their residence
				Violation of human rights if sexual and gender-based violence occurs at a space that is meant to be a home space
		If sharing accommodation with other migrants, subject to relationships and interpersonal dynamics with other lodgers
			Lower Agency: All the women’s time and resources are preoccupied with being safe/er
Social space	Public spaces at the destination country: cafes, shops, markets, places of worship, public parks, social media	Gender norms and stigma for women to be in public spaces alone or unaccompanied by male relatives	Greater Agency: Women search and form safe public spaces that are conducive to friendship and networks. The internet and social media become sites for support and information if a safe public sphere is not available. Subject to secure access to, and affordable, internet	As social spaces can be physical or online, there is greater mobility for women to look for social spaces that suit their needs. Women meet with their peers and the power relations are more equal. Seeking private space within the public sphere

Table 2. Bangladesh domestic care work migrants by category (BMET 2020).

	Housekeeper	Houseworker	Babysitter	Cleaner	Garment/Factory worker
2010	673	4,515	27	5,434	2,591
2015	4,377	3,223	151	52,881	924
2018	34,677	13,677	19,077	13,530	3,382
2019	44,418	18,593	10,350	23,520	8,467