Nutritional changes during the COVID-19 pandemic: a rapid scoping review on the impact of psychological factors

Figures & data

Table 1. Search strategies used in PubMed and PsycInfo.

	Descriptors used
PubMed	(covid OR corona OR "sars-cov-2" OR covid-19 OR lockdown OR confinement) AND (eating OR diet* OR nutrit*)
PsycInfo	(covid OR corona OR "sars-cov-2" OR covid-19 OR lockdown OR confinement) AND (eat* OR diet* OR nutrit*)

Figure 1. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematics reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) flow diagram of search procedure.

Table 2. Overview of the included studies.

Author (year of publication)	N (% f)	Age	Country	COVID restrictions	Methods	Dietary measures	Eating behaviour	Psychological factors	Psychological measures	Additional factors	Short summary of the article	Results	Notes and remarks
Liboredo et al. (2021)	1368 (80% f)	31	Brazil	Complete city locking down, building hospitals, performing strict social distancing, and implementing sanitary measures	Online survey	Food frequency questionnaire based on the Food and Nutritional Surveillance System (SISVAN)	Uncontrolled eating (UE), emotional eating (EE), and cognitive restraint (CR)	Perceived stress	10-Item version of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS)		The study aimed to assess the eating behaviour [uncontrolled eating (UE), emotional eating (EE), and cognitive restraint (CR)], the perceived stress, and independently associated factors among Brazilians during the COVID-19 pandemic.	Variables that were independently associated with EE were: increased food intake, graduation in a non-health-related course, perceived stress, UE, and CR.
Agurto et al. (2021)	686 (82.9%f)	18+	Peru	Lockdown	Cross -sectional study	Eating habits questionnaire previously validated in a Spanish-speaking population	Eating habits	Stress	“Perceived Stress Scale” (PSS)		The online survey collected information regarding eating habits, self-perceived stress and sedentary lifestyle among adults over 18 years of age residing in Lima-Peru and who complied with strict home quarantine	Almost 4 out of 10 participants reported an increase of 2.5–5 kg in their weight. This was related to some unhealthy eating behaviours and a sedentary lifestyle.
Al-Musharaf (2020)	638 (100% f)	22.0 ± 1.9 (range 18–39)	Saudi Arabia	During lockdown (stringent public health measures, such as self-isolation and physical distancing, mandatory quarantine, work and school from home)	Observational cross-sectional study, online survey	Emotional Eating Scale (EES), BMI, type and quantity of food consumption, food frequency questionnaire	Fat intake, number of meals, sugar consumption, energy intake, fast food intake frequency, frequency of urge to eat sweets	Perceived stress, depression, anxiety	Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) Questionnaire, Generalised Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7), The Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) to assess depressive symptoms	Sleep quality, physical activity, COVID-19 related knowledge	Investigates the emotional eating prevalence and predictors during pandemic among young saudi women	Most respondents (47.2%) reported low emotional eating (EE); 40.4% were “moderate” and 12.4% “high” emotional eaters; 42.8% reported depression, 27% anxiety, 71% moderate stress, and 12.5% severe stress. The main EE indicators/predictors were fat intake, number of meals, more frequent fast food intake, sugar consumption, body mass index, stress, energy intake, and fast food intake frequency. EE score correlated negatively with increased family income. Higher stress correlated with worse sleep, less sleep, and less physical activity. Consideration of potential biological determinants of EE must include female sex—which by the nature of our all-female cohort, may partly explain the high percentage of EE in this study.
Alenko et al. (2021)	277	18+	Ethiopia	Pandemic	Web-based cross-sectional survey	9 Items individual aietary diversity score (DDS)	Diet	COVID-related anxiety	Coronavirus anxiety scale (CAS), Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9),		Study to assess the magnitude of COVID-19-related anxiety and its association with dietary diversity score among health care professionals in Ethiopia. One-fifth of the study participants were found to have probable COVID-19-related anxiety.	The prevalence of COVID-19-related anxiety among health care professionals was found to be 20.2%. COVID-19-related anxiety is significantly associated with a low dietary diversity score. The other factors which are independently associated with COVID-19-related anxiety are the presence of depression and diploma educational status
Alon-Tirosh (2021)	1969 (55.1%f)	18+	Israel	Lockdown and social distancing	Cross-sectional survey		Eating habits (positive/negative/no change)	Depression, anxiety, stress	Hebrew version of the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21)	Sleep quality, alcohol consumption, smoking cigaretts	This study examined the association between the nature of changes and psychological distress, in addition to the moderating effect of “COVID-related stressors”. Findings indicate that changes in lifestyle behavioural habits (regardless of their nature)—positive health-enhancing behaviours and negative behaviours—are associated with increased psychological distress.	In the current study, more than one-third of participants were found to suffer from depression, and about a quarter of the participants reported suffering from anxiety and/or stress. Regarding eating habits, 21.81% of participants reported no change, while 43.63% and 34.55% reported positive and negative changes, respectively. Positive and negative changes were associated with higher psychological distress compared to no lifestyle change, and there was a moderating effect of COVID-related stressors in the association between COVID-related lifestyle changes and distress.
Alothman (2021)	669 (83% f)	34.5 ± 11.68	Saudi-Arabia	Distance learning, working from home to all non-medical or security personnel, nation-wide curfews, and some city lockdown	Online survey	Food frequency questionnaire (FFQ)	Dietary habits	Fear of COVID, psychological distress	Fear of COVID-19 Scale (FCV-19S), Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K-10)	Social support, sleep quality	This study aims to assess the complete spectrum of lifestyle behaviours (physical activity, sedentary behaviour, sleep, distress, social support, dietary habits, and smoking) prevalence and its association with fear of COVID-19	A second multiple regression linear analysis was performed to characterise the relationship between fear of COVID-19 and lifestyle behaviours: sedentary behaviour, physical activity, dietary habits, social relationships, distress, and sleep duration and quality Table 5. Fear of COVID-19 showed a significant association with distress
Amatori (2020)	176 (47.7% f)	23 ± 4	Italy	During lockdown (leave home only for health issues, to go to work or to buy food and other essential products)	Longitudinal observational study, online study	Pre-structured food diary, in which they inserted each food or drink consumed during the whole 24h, with quantity (nutritional choices)	Total energy intake and nutritional values, with macro- and micronutrients quantities for each food or drink consumed during the day and distribution of energy intake among the different meals throughout the day	Mood states, depression, QoL	Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) (for mood), Patient Health Questionnaire 9 (PHQ-9) (for signs of major depression), 12-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-12) (for QoL)	Exercise	This longitudinal observational study aimed to investigate the effects of mood states and exercise on nutritional choices.	Seven factors were found, reflecting different nutritional choices. Exercise was positively associated with fruit, vegetables and fish consumption. Depression and quality of life were, directly and inversely, associated with cereals, legumes and low-fat meat intake. Exercise mediated the effect of mood states on fruit, vegetables and fish consumption, respectively, accounting for 4.2% and 1.8% of the total variance. Poorer mood states possibly led to unhealthy dietary habits, which can themselves be linked to negative mood levels. Exercise led to healthier nutritional choices, and mediating the effects of mood states, it might represent a key measure in uncommon situations, such as home-confinement.	Convience sampling
Ammar et al. (2020)	1047 (54% f)	18+	Europe, North-Africa, Western Asia and America	Before and during confinement conditions	International cross-disciplinary online survey	Short Diet Behaviours Questionnaire for lockdowns (SDBQL), parts referring to the Nutricalc questionnaire, Swiss Society of Nutrition	The type of food, eating out of control, snacks between meals, number of main meals	Mental wellbeing, emotional status, life satisfaction, mood	Short Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (SWEMWBS); Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (SMFQ); Short Life Satisfaction Questionnaire for lockdowns (SLSQL); Short Social Participation Questionnaire for lockdowns (SSPQL)	Level of education, employment, marital status, physical and social inactivity, sleep quality, use of technology	This report presents the preliminary data from an online survey collected in eight languages, comparing physical activity (PA) and dietary behaviours before and during home confinement. The survey was on mental health and multidimension lifestyle behaviours during home confinement (ECLB-COVID19) and on mental, emotional and behavioural consequences of COVID-19 home confinement. The survey indicates a negative effect of home confinement on PA and diet behaviour with a significant increase in sitting time and unhealthy diet, indicative of a more sedentary lifestyle.	The COVID-19 home confinement evoked a negative effect on mental wellbeing and emotional status with a greater proportion of individuals experiencing psychosocial and emotional disorders. These psychosocial tolls were associated with unhealthy lifestyle behaviours with a greater proportion of individuals experiencing (i) physical and social inactivity, (ii) poor sleep quality, (iii) unhealthy diet behaviours, and (iv) unemployment. Conversely, participants demonstrated a greater use of technology during the confinement period. Food consumption and meal patterns (the type of food, eating out of control, snacks between meals, number of main meals) were more unhealthy during confinement, with only alcohol binge drinking decreasing significantly.
Ammar et al. (2021)	1047(53.8%f)	18+	Western Asia, North Africa, Europe	Home confinement	Cross-disciplinary online survey	Short Diet Behaviours Questionnaire for lockdowns (SDBQL)	Diet	Mental wellbeing, mood, life satisfaction	Short Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (SWEMWBS), Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (SMFQ), Short Life Satisfaction Questionnaire for lockdowns (SLSQL)	Physical activity, social participation, sleep	This report outlines the mental, emotional and behavioural consequences of COVID-19 home confinement. The survey was uploaded and shared on the Google online survey platform and was promoted by thirty-five research organisations from Europe, North Africa, Western Asia and the Americas. indings elucidate the risk of psychosocial strain during the COVID-19 home confinement period and provide a clear remit for the urgent implementation of technology-based intervention to foster an Active and Healthy Confinement Lifestyle AHCL).	Results of the survey reveal a considerable burden for mental wellbeing combined with a tendency towards an unhealthy lifestyle during, compared to before, the confinement enforced by the COVID-19 pandemic. Particularly, social and physical inactivity, an unhealthy diet and poor sleep quality, triggered by the enforced home confinement, were associated with lower mental and emotional well-being (i.e. depressive and dissatisfied feelings).
Ansah et al. (2020)	27 (70.4% f)	Ø of 32 years (range 20–58)	Ghana	During lockdown (had to indicate how many days they spent in the lockdown)	Online semi-structured open-ended survey	Weight changes, dietary habits	Eating habits	Boredom	Open ended questions	Physical activity, sedentary lifestyle, education level, type of employment	This study aimed to qualitatively analyse the experiences (PA, eating behaviour, boredom, and weight gain) of individuals in Accra, Tema, and Greater Kumasi who experienced the 21-day lockdown as COVID-19 pandemic containment measure in Ghana.	The findings revealed that majority of the respondents spent 21 days under the lockdown but few others also experienced it for about seven days. Moreover, during the lockdown period, some individuals attempted to increase their PA levels doing exercises, dancing but others also experienced a tremendous degree of inactivity because of lack of space. We further observed that the eating habit of the residents changed, where many tried to eat healthily but others experienced poor dieting behaviour. Besides, boredom set in for some of the residents who also reported weight gain as a result of the lockdown.
Barcın-Güzeldere and Devrim-Lanpir (2022)	506 (76.4%f)	18+	31 Different cities	Quarantine	Cross-sectional study	Emotional Eater Questionnaire (EEQ)	Emotional eating	Stress	Perceived Stress Scale-14 (PSS-14)		This paper presents the changes related to eating behaviours, weight-gain patterns and perceived stress according to BMI during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown. Main findings were that BMI was positively associated with EEQ scores, suggesting that people with higher BMI are more prone to emotional eating. Additionally, weight gain during quarantine was associated with increased eating tendency and consumption of unhealthy foods at home	BMI was positively correlated with EEQ. However, BMI was negatively linked with PSS-14 during COVID-19, indicating that participants with lower BMI had higher perceived stress during COVID-19. Participants gained weight during the lockdown situation (+1·20 ± 1·70 kg in men; +0·91 ± 1·40 kg in women). EEQ and PSS-14 scores of women found to be significantly higher than men (9·39 ± 5·37 in men v. 11·17 ± 5·85 in women for EEQ; 24·67 ± 8·32 in men v. 27·99 ± 7·34 in women for PSS-14).
Barone Gibbs (2021)	112 (69%f)	18+	US	Social distancing measures	Follow-up after completion of a clinical trial	Diet Screener Questionnaire	Diet	QoL, mood	Health-related quality of life (Short Form (SF)-36, Profile of Mood States,		In this natural experiment that added a follow-up assessment among desk workers who had completed a clinical trial, we aimed to evaluate the immediate impact of COVID-19 shelter-at-home on health behaviours and well-being. We found that, though most participants remained in full-time employment, their daily work experiences and personal lives changed substantially.	8.5 (21.2)-point increase in mood disturbance; reductions in five of eight quality of life subscales; 0.5 (1.1)-point decrease in work-related health (p < 0.05). Other outcomes, including diet, physical activity and workday sedentary behaviour, remained stable. Workers who were remote before and during the pandemic had greater increases in non-workday sedentary behaviour and stress, with greater declines in physical functioning.
Bell (2021)	2510 (69.5 %f)	18+	UK	Social distancing and infection prevention measures	Online cross-sectional survey	List of health behaviours	Increasing High Fat or Sugar, food consumption	Mental well-being, loneliness	The Short Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (SWEMWBS), A direct measure of loneliness, “how often do you feel lonely?,		This study found that increased COVID-19 stressors were associated with reduced mental wellbeing and increased loneliness, and participants with a mental health condition in particular reported lower wellbeing.	To cope with restrictions, more participants engaged in healthier behaviours over unhealthy behaviours, and relaxing reduced the association between stressors and poor wellbeing. Some participants reported increasing alcohol and unhealthy dietary behaviours to cope with restrictions, however, these behaviours did not mitigate the impact of COVID-19 stressors and were instead negatively associated with wellbeing. Around half of participants helped neighbours during the pandemic, a behaviour positively associated with wellbeing particularly among older adults.
Bemanian et al. (2021)	24,968 (56% f)	18+ (50% were under the age of 50)	Norway	During lockdown (April 2020 after around six weeks of interventions to tackle the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic)	Electronic questionnaire	Self-reported weight and height, items that assessed eating habits and emotional eating	Prevalence of emotional eating, consumption of high-sugar foods and beverages, emotional eating	Psychological distress symptoms, COVID-19-related worries	Express their level of worry concerning health-related and economic consequences of the pandemic and the lockdown on a three-point scale ranging from not worried to substantially worried. Psychological distress was measured using the 10-item version of the standardised questionnaire Hopkins symptom checklist (SCL-10) assessing mental health symptoms during the past 7 days, setting the threshold of distress at a mean SCL-10 score of 1.85		This large population-based study presents data on the prevalence of emotional eating and its association with worries and mental distress during the COVID-19 lockdown in Norway and is the first to explore associations between emotional eating and worries related to health and personal economy during a pandemic.	Overall, emotional eating was reported in 54% of the population and was markedly more frequent in female participants. Worries related to consequences of the pandemic were associated with increased emotional eating, and the association was stronger for worries related to personal economy compared to worries related to health. Psychological distress had a strong association with emotional eating. Correspondingly, the intake of high-sugar foods and beverages was higher for those with substantial COVID-19-related worries and those with psychological distress compared to the overall population.
Berge (2021)	585 (63.3% f)	18+	US		Follow-up online survey	EAT surveys (Larson et al. 2013)	Family/shared meals, dietary consumption	Emotional wellbeing	EAT surveys (Larson et al. 2013)		Overall, study findings indicated that engaging in family/shared meal routines may provide protective associations with dietary and emotional well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic and potentially future public health crises.	Participants reported an average of 4.6 ± 3.4 family/shared meals per week during COVID-19, a 0.5 meal/week increase from prior to the pandemic. Family/shared meal frequency during COVID-19 differed by race/ethnicity, with Asian American participants being most likely to report only 1–2 family/shared meals per week. Family/shared meals during COVID-19 were associated with higher vegetable intake, greater availability of fruits, vegetables, and whole wheat bread in the home, lower levels of depressive symptoms and perceived stress, and greater perceived ability to manage stress in young adults.
Bhutani et al. (2021)	764 (50.79%f)	Males 40.09 ± 12.40 years; females 40.66 ± 13.94 years (range 18–75)	US	During peak-lockdown (April/May) and at post-lockdown (September/October)	Longitudinal study	Weight change (BMI), some specific questions on eating behaviour (see right), The Control of Eating Questionnaire (CoEQ)	Participants reported current consumption frequency of fruits, vegetables, non-diet beverages, including all sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB; for example, Coke, Pepsi, favoured juice drinks, sports drinks, sweetened teas, coffee drinks, energy drinks, electrolyte replacement drinks), diet beverages, restaurant/takeout/fast food/delivery food, and processes and ultra-processed foods (using the NOVA classification system categories). Response options were: Never, less than once a month, less than once a week, once a week, several times a week, Once a day, twice a day, three or more times a day.	Stress, boredom	Multidimensional State Boredom Scale, no specific scale for stress included	Physical activity, sleep quality	This study assessed longitudinal changes in body weight and lifestyle behaviours in the US adults during the pandemic.	Body weight increased (+0.62 kg; p < 0.05) at the post-lockdown period. The body mass index also increased (26.38 ± 5.98 kg/m2 vs. 26.12 ± 5.81 kg/m2; p < 0.01) at the post-lockdown period vs. peak-lockdown period. Close to 40% of participants reported gaining either 1–4 lbs or >5 lbs of body weight during the peak-lockdown, while 18.2% lost weight. Weight-gainers engaged in riskier dietary behaviours such as frequent ultra-processed food intake (p < 0.01) and snacking (p < 0.001), were less active, and reported high stress and less craving control during peak-lockdown. Of those gaining >5 lbs, 33% continued to gain weight after the lockdown eased, while 28% maintain higher body weight. In weight-gainers, takeout meal frequency increased, and high ultra-processed food intake and stress, and low craving control continued to persist after the lockdown eased.
Biviá-Roig (2020)	90 (100% f)	18 Years who were in the second or third trimester of their pregnancy. 33.1 ± 4.6	Spain	Confinement of every citizen, social distancing and isolation at home	Online cross-sectional study	Mediterranean Diet Adherence Screener (MEDAS)	Eating habits	Health-related QoL	Three-level EuroQol-5D questionnaire (EQ-5D-3L)		This study aimed to analyse the impact of the confinement due to the COVID-19 pandemics on the eating, exercise, and quality-of-life habits of pregnant women.	In terms of adherence to the MD (low, medium, or high), there were no significant differences between the pre- and during COVID-19 confinement values. There was a significant decrease in the levels of HRQoL. These results suggest the need to implement specific online programs to promote exercise and reduce stress, thus improving the HRQoL in this population, should similar confinements need to occur again for any reason in the future.	Only pregnant women
Bonaccio et al. (2021)	1401 and 1340 (59.2% f)	58.1 ± 15.3	Italy	During the lockdown, Italian residents were required to stay at home and only essential needs/services were permitted, with huge limitations in terms of working activities that were converted into home working as far as possible.	Cross-sectional analysis from 2 retrospective Italian cohorts. The Moli-LOCK cohort consists of participants from the Moli-sani Study who were administered a telephone-based questionnaire to assess lifestyles and psychological factors during confinement; (2) the ALT RISCOVID-19 is a web-based survey distributed throughout Italy who self-responded to the same questionnaire using Google® forms.	Changes in consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPF) or adherence to Mediterranean diet (MD)	Diet quality	Psychological distress, anxiety, depression	Assessments of depression (PHQ-9 and depressive items from the Screening Questionnaire for Disaster Mental Health-SQD-D), anxiety (GAD-7), stress (PSS-4), and post-traumatic stress disorder (SQD-P)		To examine the relationship between psychological distress resulting from the COVID-19 lockdown and dietary changes.	In ALT RISCOVID-19, increased UPF intake was directly associated with depression, anxiety, stress and SQD-P; similar results were obtained in the Moli-LOCK cohort except for perceived stress. When psychometric scales were analysed simultaneously, only depression (SQD-D) remained associated with UPF (both cohorts). In both cohorts, psychological distress poorly influenced changes towards an MD, except for depression (SQD-D) that resulted inversely associated in the ALT RISCOVID-19 participants
Borgatti et al. (2021)	55 (90.9% f)	18+	US	Lockdown	Online survey	Reported estimated weight change	Weight management behaviours, eating motivation	Loneliness	PROMIS Social Isolation Questionnaire		The present study evaluated weight management efforts among weight loss program participants during the COVID-19 pandemic. Loneliness and working remotely increased the difficulty of weight management behaviours during COVID-19 among weight loss program participants. However, staying active, planning and tracking food consumption, choosing healthy foods, and reducing emotional eating protected against weight gain.	Most participants (58%) reported gaining weight during COVID-19. Weight gain was predicted by challenges with the following health behaviours: physical activity, monitoring food intake, choosing healthy foods, and emotional eating. Loneliness and working remotely significantly related to emotional eating, physical activity, and choosing healthy foods.
Cecchetto et al. (2021)	365 (73.1% f)	35.09 ± 13.59 (range 18–74)	Italy	During lockdown (initially, citizens were required to stay at home and not to mix with others outside of their household (Phase 1); eventually, some of these restrictions were lifted (Phase 2))	Online survey	BMI, Binge-Eating Disorder Screener (BEDS-7)	Emotional eating and binge eating	Anxiety, stress, depression, quality of personal relationships, quality of life	Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-2) investigating depressive symptoms, Generalised Anxiety Disorder scale (GAD-2), Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10)	Income, workload, education, family income	To investigate the impact of lockdown on emotional and binge eating, an online survey was conducted to compare measures of self-reported physical (BMI), psychological (Alexithymia), affective (anxiety, stress, and depression) and social (income, workload) state during Phase 1 and Phase 2.	Increased emotional eating was predicted by higher depression, anxiety, quality of personal relationships, and quality of life, while the increase of bingeing was predicted by higher stress. Moreover, we showed that higher alexithymia scores were associated by increased emotional eating and higher BMI scores were associated with both increased emotional eating and binge eating. Finally, we found that from Phase 1 to Phase 2 binge and emotional eating decreased. These data provide evidence of the negative effects of isolation and lockdown on emotional wellbeing, and, relatedly, on eating behaviour.
Chopra et al. (2020)	995 (41.5%f)	Ø of 33.3 years	India	During COVID-19 (during the unlock phase)	Cross-sectional web-based survey	Question on change in weight status during COVID-19, baseline lifestyle related behaviours, changes in different lifestyle related behaviours such as eating habits. The domain on eating behaviour consists of 12 items on meal pattern, portion size, frequency of meals, food group consumption pattern, emotional eating and intake of high fat, salt and sugar (HFSS) foods and sugarsweetened beverages (SSB) consumption.	Eating habits, meal pattern, portion size, frequency of meals, food group consumption pattern, emotional eating, intake of high fat, salt and sugar foods and sugarsweetened beverages	Stress, anxiety	One item for daily stress levels and two items for stress related addictive behaviours such as smoking and alcohol consumption. 6 items assessing the perceived COVID-19 specific reasons for changes in lifestyle-related behaviours.	Physical activity, sleep, SES	The impact of measures taken to contain COVID-19 on lifestyle-related behaviour is undefined in Indian population. The current study was undertaken to assess the impact of COVID-19 on lifestyle-related behaviours: eating, physical activity and sleep behaviour.	An improvement in healthy meal consumption pattern and a restriction of unhealthy food items was observed, especially in the younger population (age <30 years). A reduction in physical activity coupled with an increase in daily screen time was found especially among men and in upper-socio-economic strata. quarantine induced stress and anxiety showed an increase by a unit in nearly one-fourth of the participants.Thus, COVID-19 marginally improved the eating behaviour, yet one-third of participants gained weight as physical activity declined significantly coupled with an increase in screen and sitting time. Mental health was also adversely affected. A detailed understanding of these factors can help to develop interventions to mitigate the negative lifestyle behaviours that have manifested during COVID-19.
Cirillo (2021)	140 (100%f)	18+	Italy	7 Weeks after the beginnig of lockdown	Quantitative research study (web-based)	Self-administered questions	Nutritional habits	Anxiety, sadness, anger, boredom and optimism	Self-administered questions	Menstrual cycle changes	Study evaluated the impact of COVID-19 lockdown on lifestyle and emotional state in women planning infertility treatments	Study observed changes in body weight during lockdown in 80 % of women, and a significant increase in BMI in comparison to that observed before. They observed a high percentage of non-adherence to the Mediterranean pattern during lockdown due to higher frequency of consumption of sweet/pastries, cheese and meat, rather than fruit, vegetables and legumes. Before lockdown 36.4 % women were snack consumers while during lockdown 55 %. By considering individuals’ attitude to snack consumption, they observed an increase related to boredom and anxiety during lockdown. Increased levels of anxiety and sadness were observed in about 30 %, and of boredom in 25 %. The percentage of women worried about their planning infertility treatment was more than 50 %.
Coakley (2021)	1243 (73.1%f)	18+	US	Lockdown	Cross-sectional survey	theAdult Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (AEBQ)	Appetitive traits, food approach, food avoidance	Anxiety	Generalised Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7)		This study evaluated anxiety symptom severity and associations with appetitive traits in students at a large public University in the U.S. during the pandemic. Over half of students at a U.S. University reported moderate to severe anxiety symptoms during COVID-19. More severe anxiety symptoms were associated with increased hunger, emotional over-eating, and food and satiety responsiveness and decreased enjoyment of food.	51.9% reported moderate to severe anxiety symptoms. Groups experiencing the highest degree of moderate to severe anxiety symptoms included transgender, gender fluid, and other-gendered participants (73.6%). Participants with moderate to severe anxiety symptoms had higher scores for most food approach and avoidance traits but lower scores for enjoyment of food than those with mild to no anxiety symptoms.
Coulthard et al. (2021)	620 (88% f)	39.90 ± 13.96	UK	During lockdown (leaving the home was allowed for four reasons; to exercise once a day, to shop for essentials such as food, to work outside the home as an essential worker, and to get medical treatment. Older people should not leave the house except for medical reasons)	Cross-sectional survey	BMI, food insecurity (Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES)), self-reported changes to food consumption, emotional eating, shopping behaviour, Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire – Revised 18-item version (TFEQ-R18)	Consumption of HED (high energy density) snack foods, pre-lockdown eating behaviour (emotional eating and uncontrolled eating), eating home prepared foods, and fruits and vegetables, emotional eating	COVID-specific health anxiety, maladaptive coping strategies	Coping strategies: The Brief Coping Inventory, Health Anxiety: The Short Health Anxiety Inventory (SHAI)	Number of household members, occupational status, employment status	Examines self-reported changes in eating patterns and behaviour during the lockdown in the UK, and associations with BMI, demographic variables, eating styles, health anxiety, food insecurity and coping strategies.	The results showed that there were self-reported changes to food consumption during the lockdown across the sample. Increases in consumption of HED (high energy density) snack foods during the lockdown was associated with sex, pre-lockdown eating behaviour (emotional eating and uncontrolled eating), and Covid-specific health anxiety. Increases in positive eating practices such as eating more home prepared foods, and fruits and vegetables, were associated with adaptive coping strategies. Higher emotional eating (EE) during the lockdown was associated with a higher BMI, higher pre-lockdown EE and maladaptive coping strategies. Maladaptive coping strategies moderated the relationship between BMI and EE during the lockdown. In particular a higher BMI was associated with higher EE during the lockdown if an individual also had higher maladaptive coping strategies. These findings suggest that changes to eating behaviour may be part of a wider style of maladaptive or adaptive coping, particularly in those with a history of EE or uncontrolled eating. Preparing individuals to adopt more adaptive coping strategies during lockdown situations may be crucial to improving health during subsequent the lockdown events.
Cummings et al. (2022)	868 (51.9%f)	18+	US	Early stages of the pandemic	Cohort study	Palatable Eating Motives Scale (PEMS), National Cancer Institute’s Dietary Screener Questionnaire, Modified Yale Food Addiction Scale 2.0 (mYFAS 2.0)	Motivations for eating, intake of selected food and drinks, addictive-like responses to highly processed foods	Subjective stress	Modified Impact of Event Scale – revised (IES-R)		The current study did not find evidence that average levels of eating to cope and food addiction symptoms increased among U.S. adults after the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic; however, there was small evidence that U.S. adults ate more added sugars.	Average levels of eating to cope and food addiction symptoms did not appear to shift during the early stages of the pandemic; however, U.S. adults ate about 14% more added sugars. Moreover, greater stress in response to the pandemic was associated with greater eating to cope, added sugars intake, food addiction symptoms, drinking to cope, and drinking frequency. These associations differed by the presence of state-level stay-at-home orders, perceived vulnerability to disease, age, U.S. political party affiliation, and gender.
Davila-Torres et al. (2021)	74 (43.2%f)	18+	Peru	Second quarantine	Cross-sectional study	A food frequency questionnaire (FFQ)	Dietary intake	Depression, anxiety, stress	Depression, anxiety, and stress scale-21 (DASS-21)		The aim of the study was to evaluate whether the eating habits and mental health status of the rugby players of the Peruvian pre-selection were affected by the second quarantine of the COVID-19 pandemic. The risks of depression is evident among Peruvian rugby players who reported inadequate food intake.	58.1% of the respondents reported that their dietary intake remained the same or increased. 58.3% of the players experienced anxiety, among which 26.4% reported moderate and severe symptoms. A greater proportion of participants <20 years old reported depression compared to those ⩾20 years (68.6% vs 31.4%, p = 0.010). Those who reported inadequate food intake were more likely to report depressive symptoms
De Backer et al. (2021)	37.207 (77% f)	37.207 ± 14.8	38 countries	During COVID-19	Cross-sectional online survey	11 Items from a validated food literacy scale that captures behaviours in the domains of “planning (and managing)”, “selecting”, and “preparing” healthier foods	Planning, selecting, preparing food	Psychological distress	Kessler K6 scale	Educational attainment, employment status, income (for food), and the number of (adult) household members	To examine changes in planning, selecting, and preparing healthy foods in relation to personal factors (time, money, stress) and social distancing policies during the COVID-19 crisis.	Increases in planning, selecting, and preparing healthy foods were found for women and men, and positively related to perceived time availability and stay-at-home policies. Psychological distress was a barrier for women, and an enabler for men. Financial stress was a barrier and enabler depending on various sociodemographic variables (all p < 0.01).
Deschasaux-Tanguy (2021)	37.252 (52.3% f)	52.1 ± 16.6	France	During lockdown (strict lockdown measures, requiring the temporary closure of all but essential places and causing an unprecedented disruption of daily life)	Online survey	Dietary intake, body weight (BMI), food supply, nutrition-related changes	Snacking, consumption of fresh food, home cooking	Anxiety, depression, level of concern	Patient Health Questionnaire–9 scale, 14 item Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale	Physical activity, sedentary time, education level, income, marietal status	Explore potential changes in dietary intake, physical activity, body weight, and food supply during the COVID-19 lockdown and how these differed according to individual characteristics	During the lockdown, trends of unfavourable changes were observed: decreased physical activity (reported by 53% of the participants), increased sedentary time (reported by 63%), increased snacking, decreased consumption of fresh food (especially fruit and fish), and increased consumption of sweets, cookies, and cakes. Yet, the opposite trends were also observed: increased home cooking (reported by 40%) and increased physical activity (reported by 19%). Additionally, 35% of the participants gained weight (mean weight gain in these individuals, 1.8 kg ± SD 1.3 kg) and 23% lost weight (2 kg ± SD 1.4 kg weight loss). All of these trends displayed associations with various individual characteristics.
Di Renzo, Gualtieri, Pivari, et al. (2020)	602 (79.9% f)	40.03 ± 13.53	Italy	During lockdown	Second part of the EHLC-COVID19 online survey	EHLC-COVID questionnaire, 25 item Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS)	Emotional eating, diet control and appetite	Depression, anxiety	14 Item Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale; 17 item Hamilton Depression Scale, Generalised Anxiety Disorder–7 scale GAD-7	Province of residents, insomnia , level of education, cohabitation situation at home	This paper presents data from the second part of the EHLC-COVID19 survey that aimed to analyse the psychological status during COVID-19 pandemic and its correlation with the eating habits in the Italian population.	Almost half of the respondents felt anxious due to the fact of their eating habits, consumed comfort food and were inclined to increase food intake to feel better. Females were more anxious and disposed to comfort food than males
Du (2021)	2254 (66.7% f)	22.5 ± 5.5	China, Ireland, Malaysia, South Korea, Taiwan, Netherlands, United States	Beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic	Online cross-sectional study, mediation and moderation analysis	BMI, 8-item simplified food frequency ques-tionnaire (FFQ)	Food frequency, consumption of energy and added sugar and lower intake of fruits and vegetables	Perceived stress, resilience	Perceived Stress Scale-10 (PSS-10)	Sleep quality and duration	This study did a mediation/moderation analysis, with perceived stress influencing dietary behaviours. Sleep quality, duration and resilience were investigated as moderators/mediators. The same moderators were tested between the link of perceived stress and alcohol misuse.	Results indicated that sleep quality mediated the relationship between perceived stress and dietary behaviours as well as the relationship between perceived stress and alcohol misuse. Further, increased resilience reduced the strength of the relationship between perceived stress and dietary behaviours but not alcohol misuse.
Enriquez-Martinez et al. (2021)	6325 (68%f)	18+	Ibero-American Countries: Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Peru, and Spain	During the period of confinement	Cross-sectional study	Single structured digital self-administered questionnaire designed and culturally adapted by a team of nutrition and lifestyle research experts	Consumption of meals and food groups	Anxiety	Single structured digital self-administered questionnaire designed and culturally adapted by a team of nutrition and lifestyle research experts		This study aimed to evaluate changes in dietary and lifestyle habits during the period of confinement due to the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ibero-American countries. Although most participants remained constant in their eating habits, lifestyle changes and anxiety feelings were reported	Most participants (61.6%), mainly those from Spain, remained constant, without improving or worsening their pattern of food consumption. Among those who changed, a pattern of better eating choices prevailed (22.7%) in comparison with those who changed towards less healthy choices (15.7%). Argentina and Brazil showed the highest proportion of changes towards a healthier pattern of food consumption. Peruvians and Mexicans were less likely to make healthy changes in food consumption (OR: 0.51; 95% CI: 0.4–0.6 and OR: 0.69; 95% CI: 0.4–0.8, respectively), when compared to Argentinians. Most respondents did not change their pattern of meal consumption, but those who did reduced their consumption of main meals and increased intake of small meals and snacks.
Flaudias et al. (2020)	5738 (74.6% f)	21.2 ± 4.50	France	First week of home-confinement	Online questionnaire	The body dissatisfaction and impulse regulation subscales of the Eating Disorder Inventory, 2nd edition; eating disorder screening tool (Sick, Control, One, Fat, Food [SCOFF]; Ideal Body Stereotype Scale (IBSS), BMI	Binge eating and dietary restrictions	Depression, perceived stress, impulse regulation, body dissatisfaction	Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS); 10-item Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10); Ideal Body Stereotype Scale (IBSS), the body dissatisfaction and impulse regulation subscales of the Eating Disorder Inventory, 2nd edition	Pre-existing eating concerns, stress, mood, body image,	This study examined the relationships between stress related to lockdown measures and binge eating and dietary restriction in a population of French students during the first week of confinement.	Stress related to the lockdown was associated with greater likelihood of binge eating and dietary restriction over the past week and intentions to binge eat and restrict over the next 15 days. Greater exposure to COVID-19-related media was associated with increased eating restriction over the past week. Binge eating and restriction (past and intentions) were associated with established risk factors, including female gender, low impulse regulation, high body dissatisfaction, and having a concurrent probable eating disorder.	Stress related to the lockdown and social isolation might increase the risk of problematic eating behaviours and that this might be particularly the case for those with pre-existing eating disorder symptoms and concerns. Screening for high-risk individuals and providing targeted intervention and counselling related to the environmental stressors created by the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown would help to mitigate the negative impact on problematic eating behaviours.
Freitas et al. (2021)	71 (100%f)	18+	Brazil	Confinement measures	Study occurred in two stages, one in person and one online	Brazilian Food Craving Inventory (FCI-Br), the Brazilian version of the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire—R21 (TFEQ-R21)	Cravings, emotional eating (EA), uncontrolled eating (UE)	Anxiety	State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)	Sociodemographic, premenstrual symptoms	Study assessed the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the anxiety, premenstrual symptoms, and eating behaviour of young women. The results suggest that the pandemic may have had a positive impact on anxiety and eating behaviour of the participants, which may be due to differences between urban and rural populations and the latter living with their families.	Trait anxiety during the pandemic was significantly lower than in the prepandemic period. Investigation of the “anxiety/stress” symptom of the Premenstrual Symptoms Screening Tool (PSST) revealed that this symptom was more severe before the pandemic. There was a decline in the desire for sweet and fatty foods during the pandemic. However, craving for traditional foods rose significantly in the same period. Uncontrolled and emotional eating were significantly lower during the pandemic.
Gao et al. (2022)	1128 (64%f)	24.34 ± 10.48	China	City wide lockdowns and home confinements	Online survey	Adult Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (AEBQ), Four questions were used to assess the desire for high‐calorie food: (1) how strong do you desire to have sweet milk‐tea during the last couple of days, (2) how strong do you desire to have fried chicken during the last couple of days, (3) how strong do you desire sweet milk‐tea before the COVID‐19 lockdowns, and (4) how strong do you desire fried chicken before the COVID‐19 lockdowns?	Emotional overeating, emotional undereating, food responsiveness, desire for high-calorie food.	Neuroticism, negative affect	Nine items including depressed, uninterested, stressful, irritable, anxious, painful, tired, distracted, and forgetful. Participants were asked by “To what degree do you feel each of the following emotion since the COVID‐19 break out”, Neuroticism‐Extraversion Openness Five Factor Inventory‐3 (NEO‐FFI‐3)	Social media exposure	the current study aims to establish a pathway model to understand social media exposure, negative affect, neuroticism, and their interaction with eating behaviours during the COVID‐19 lockdowns.	Correlation analysis showed that emotional overeating is positively associated with social media exposure, neuroticism, and anxiety. Then, a moderated mediation model was established, showing that heavy social media exposure could lead to emotional overeating through anxiety, and the association between social media exposure and anxiety varies depending on the extent of neuroticism. The current study provides novel insight into how the interaction of a personality trait and the stressful situation of COVID‐19 influence people’s negative emotions and eating behaviours.
García-Esquinas et al. (2021)	3041 (57.7%f)	≥65	Spain	Confinement	Pre-pandemic face-to-face interview and a telephone interview conducted between weeks 7 to 15 after the beginning of the COVID-19 lockdown.	14-point Mediterranean diet adherence screener questionnaire—MEDAS	Diet quality	QoL, depression	12-Item Short Form (SF) in ENRICA, the EuroQol-5D,	Pyhsical activity, sleep quality, tabacco consumption	This study, conducted with older adults from four Spanish population-based cohorts, showed that, on average, strict confinement was not associated with a deterioration in lifestyle risk factors, except for physical activity and sedentary time, whose effects seemed to reverse with the end of the State of Alarm.	The lockdown during the first wave of COVID-19 in Spain, which was one of the most restrictive in Europe, was not associated with a deterioration in lifestyle risk factors (smoking, alcohol intake, diet, or weight), except for decreased physical activity and increased sedentary time, which reversed with the end of confinement. However, mental health was affected, particularly in those living alone, feeling lonelier, with mobility limitations, and with lower cognitive function
Garre-Olmo et al. (2021)	692 (54.8% f)	50.21 ± 16.3	Spain	During lockdown (suspension of all academic activities, obliged to stay at home except to purchase food and medicines, to go to work, or to attend emergencies, temporary closure of all the non-essential activities and businesses)	Telephone-based questionnaire	Changes in dietary pattern		Depression, worries about being infected	Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9)	Physical activity, social interaction, daily activities, job situation	Assessed the relationship between the consequences of the confinement due to the COVID-19 pandemic on the physical and mental health status, on the dietary pattern, on people’s daily activities, including their job, social interactions, physical activities, and worries about being infected and the risk of possible depressive episode and de-pressive symptomatology in the general population aged 18 years or over.	Changes in lifestyle resulting from confinement due to COVID-19 and depressive symptomatology: A cross-sectional a population-based study
Guerrini Usubini et al. (2021)	437 (51.3%f)	25.2 ± 5.12	Italy	Citizens were asked to isolate themselves and were not allowed to leave their homes except for well-documented reasons. Non-essential activities and schools were closed, and most workers were restricted to working from home or stopping work.	Online survey	Emotional Eating subscale of the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (EE_DEBQ)	Emotional eating	Psychological distress, emotion regulation	Depression Anxiety Stress Scale e (DASS-21), Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS),		The current study aimed to explore the relationship between psychological distress related to the second COVID-19 lockdown and emotional eating. Moreover, the second aim of the study was to investigate the mediating role of emotional dysregulation in the link between psychological distress and emotional eating.	Emotional eating was associated with psychological distress and emotional dysregulation. Moreover, higher levels of emotional eating were found in females than in males. Predictors of emotional eating were sex, psychological distress, and emotional dysregulation. Mediation analyses showed that the indirect effect of psychological distress on emotional eating through emotional dysregulation was significant (b = 0.0069; SE = 0.0024; CI = 0.0024–0.0118), confirming that the relationship between psychological distress and emotional eating was mediated by emotional dysregulation, controlling for sex
Gutiérrez-Pérezet al. (2021)	742	–	Mexico, Chile, Spain	Strict decisions regarding control, with physical distancing and limiting mobility as the main prevention measures	Electronic survey	In general, the participants were asked about changes in their lifestyle behaviour due to confinement by COVID-19. The general perception of diet was consulted (good, regular, or bad); and frequency of water consumption (glasses per day (250 mL)), as well as soda (units (500 mL) per day).	Food habits	Health-related quality of life (HRQoL)	SF-36 Health Survey	Physical activity	The aim of the present study was to determine the association between the health-related quality of life (HRQoL) with sociodemographic parameters and lifestyle during COVID-19 confinement	The bad eating habits, PA limitations, female sex, comorbidity presence, and smoking were parameters linked negatively with HRQoL
Haddad et al. (2020)	407 (51.3% f)	30.59 ± 10.10	Lebanon	During lockdown/home confinement (social isolation)	Cross-sectional web-based online survey	Questionnaire (BMI, demographic measures, curreent fear of COVID-19, quarantine and confinement stressors), weight concern (shape concern subscale), Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q)	Restraint eating, weight, and shape concern	Boredom, fear (of COVID-19), anxiety, anger, insecurity	9 questions related to stressors of quarantine and confinementin addition to various scales: (1) current fear of COVID-19 (based on questionnaires from past studies) (2) Short Boredom Proness Scale (SBPS) (3) Lebanese Anxiety Scale (LAS) (4) Anger subscale of the Buss-Perry Scale (to measure physical and verbal aggression, anger and hostility) (4) Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q)	Financial problems, lack of physical contact with friends, physical activity	Primary objective of this study is to evaluate the association between quarantine/coninement stressors and eating behaviour during the COVID-19 outbreak	More than half of the sample (53.0%) abide by the home quarantine/confinement, 95.4% were living with someone in the quarantine/confinement, and 39.6% continued to work from home. Higher fear of COVID-19 was found in 182 (44.8%) participants, higher boredom in 200 (49.2%) participants, higher anger in 187 (46.3%), and higher anxiety in 197 (48.5%) participants. Higher fear of COVID-19 (Beta = 0.02), higher BMI (Beta = 0.05), and physical activity (Beta = 1.04) were significantly associated with a higher restraint score. Higher anxiety, higher fear of COVID-19, higher BMI, practicing physical exercise, and a higher number of adults living in the quarantine/confinement were significantly associated with higher shape and weight concerns.
Herle (2021)	22.374 (76% f)	18+	UK	During lockdown	Online survey	Body weight status, participants were asked each week to indicate if they experienced a change in their eating over the past week	Participants were asked each week to indicate if they experienced a change in their eating over the past week	Depression, loneliness, anxiety, worries	Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), Anxiety Disorder assessment (GAD-7), 3-item UCLA-3 Loneliness Scale, Participants were also asked to indicate to what extent they were worrying about COVID-19 specific topicsrtanging. Worries included the fear of not being able to access food, catching COVID-19, and becoming seriously ill.	Education status, marietal status, social support	The objectives of this study were: i) to derive longitudinal trajectories of change in eating during UK lockdown, and ii) to identify risk factors associated with eating behaviour trajectories.	Analyses suggested five trajectories, with the majority (64%) showing no change in eating. In contrast, one trajectory was marked by persistently eating more, whereas another by persistently eating less. Overall, participants with greater depressive symptoms were more likely to report any change in eating. Loneliness was linked to persistently eating more (OR 1⁄4 1.07), whereas being single or divorced, as well as stressful life events, were associated with consistently eating less (OR 1⁄4 1.69). Overall, higher education status was linked to lower odds of changing eating behaviour (OR 1⁄4 0.54e0.77). Secondary exploratory analyses suggest that participants self-reported to have overweight were more commonly categorised into the group consistently eating more, whereas participants with underweigh persistently ate less.
Hu et al. (2020)	1033 (52% f)	Range 18–60	China	Before and during COVID-19 (personal restrictions, mass confinement, and compulsory home isolation, wear a face mask)	Online survey	Dietary intake via items from simplified food frequency questionnaire (FFQ-25)(+ leisure-time physical exercise, leisure-time screen time)	Vegetable and fruit intake, skipping breakfast	Subjective well-being, perceived social support, perceived loneliness	Perceived social support (PSS) (Perceived Social Support Scale (PSSS)), and loneliness during the COVID-19 epidemic (University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Loneliness Scale (ULS-8)), Subjective Well-Being Assessment (General Wellbeing Schedule (GWS))	Self-rated physical health/physical activity, screen-time, income, education, marietal status	The aim of this study is to explore perceived lifestyle changes after the outbreak of COVID-19 and their association with subjective well-being (SWB) among the general population in Mainland China.	The prevalence of a possible depressive episode during the confinement was 12.7%. An adverse work situation, expected economic distress, self-reported worsening of the mental health and of the dietary pattern, and worries about a relative’s potential infection were variables related to an increased risk of having a pos-sible depressive episode. The changes in lifestyle accounted for 32% of the variance of the PHQ-9 score.
Huber (2020)	1957 (71.5% f)	23.4 ± 4.0	Germany	Before and during lockdown (social distancing, closure of restaurants, sports and cultural facilities as well as by prohibiting interaction of people from different households. Food acquisition was restricted to supermarkets, grocery stores and delivery services)	Cross-sectional study, online survey	Questions about their lifestyle habits including food consumption/sports activity/smoking and alcohol consumption, quantify the overall amount of food consumed as well as different types of food, changes in food procurement (convenient/delivery/restaurant, cafeteria, home-cooked) --> compared before and after lockdown	Self-reported change in food consumption, change in food procurement and composition of food --> Amount and type of food before and during lockdown, acquisition and food procurement	Mental stress	The survey was created by themselves		Aimed to investigate the effect of the lockdown measures on nutrition behaviour among young adults.	The COVID-19 pandemic lockdown significantly affected eating habits in young adults. The overall food amount increased in 31.2% of participants during lockdown and decreased in 16.8%. Increased food intake was less likely in male participants and more likely with increasing BMI, increased sports activity, augmented mental stress and an alteration of alcohol consumption. Increase in food intake was mainly triggered by consumption of bread and confectionary. In this study, there was no relevant change in the overall frequency of people getting their food from a takeaway or from restaurants offering a delivery service, but a considerable fraction of participants changed their attitude towards readymade food and food delivery services. Male sex, high BMI and decreased sports activities during lock-down were identified as factors promoting the consumption of readymade food. Among participants of our study reporting to consume more food after lockdown, there was a detectable shift towards carbohydrate-containing food such as confectionaries and bread. Increased confectionary consumption had a higher chance of decreased fruit and vegetable consumption.
Ingram et al. (2020)	399 (56.4% f)	32.4 ± 11.4	Scotland	During lockdown	Online survey	Rated changes to their diet. A 5-point scale was used (diet: 1 = “a lot more unhealthy”, 3 = “about the same”, 5 = “a lot more healthy”)	General diet	Mood, depression, anger, tension	Selected 10 negative items from Grove and Prapavessis’ (1992) abbreviated Profile of Mood State (POMS) scale, with two items taken from each of the five sub-dimensions of Confusion (forgetful, unable to concentrate), Tension (anxious, uneasy), Depression (helpless, sad) and Anger (angry, annoyed)	Change in work-status, alcohol consumption. fatigue	This study adds to reports on poor mental health during lockdown and identifies lifestyle restrictions and changes to health behaviours which may, to some extent, be responsible for higher negative mood.	For those whose work-status had changed, more participants than expected reported that their diet was “a little more unhealthy”, and fewer participants than expected maintained the same diet; for those participants reporting no change in work-status, fewer participants than expected reported that their diet was “a little more unhealthy”, and more participants than expected had maintained their pre-lockdown diet. those with a much unhealthier diet during lockdown had greater NMS than those whose diets were the same or had improved a lot. Those participants whose diet had only changed a little for the worse still reported greater NMS than those who had maintained the same diet and those who had a much-improved diet as before lockdown.
Jalal (2021)	628 (70.9%f)	18+	Saudi Arabia	Before and during lockdown	Prospective cohort study design	Food frequency questionnaire developed by the Saudi Food and Drug Administration (SFDA)	Dietary recall, calorie intake	Stress	Perceived Stress Scale (PSP)		This prospective cohort study aimed to determine the significant changes in body mass index (BMI), physical activity, and lifestyle of the students including diet, sleep, and mental health before and during COVID-19 lockdown. Though half of the students maintained the same BMI during the lockdown, students who increased BMI were associated with physical activity and lifestyle.	BMI of the students showed that 32% increased their weight, 22% lost their weight and 46% maintained the same weight during COVID-19 lockdown. The physical activity significantly decreased and sedentary time increased. Regarding the lifestyle components, fast and fried food consumption decreased, and calorie intake increased significantly. Stress level significantly decreased, and sleep level increased during lockdown.
Jansen et al. (2021)	318 (64.4% f)	37.7 ± 6.6	US	Mandatory lockdowns with consequent closure of non-essential businesses, kindergartens and schools, and cancellation of out-of-home leisure time activities and social gatherings		Snack parenting practices were assessed with four subscales from the Parenting around SNAcking Questionnaire (P-SNAQ), general feeding practices were assessed using the following subscales of validated questionnaires: emotional feeding and instrumental feeding from the Parent Feeding Style Questionnaire (PFSQ), monitoring from the CFPQ, structured meal timing, structured meal setting and family meal setting from the Feeding Practices and Structure Questionnaire (FPSQ)	Food parenting practices, general feeding practices, child diet, snack parenting practices	Stress	Food insecurity (2-item screener by Hager et al. 2010) and receipt of public assistance (e.g. food support/stamps). Parents indicated how stressed they were in general right now, as well as before the pandemic (e.g. “In general, how would you rate your level of stress before the COVID-19 crisis?“). Parents responded to 16 COVID-19-specific stress items		This study aimed to investigate the impact of pandemic-associated stress on food parenting practices including interactions surrounding snacks, and child diet.	Higher COVID-19-specific stress was associated with more non-nutritive use of food and snacks (e.g. emotional and instrumental feeding), but also more structure and positive interactions (e.g. eating with or engaging with child around mealtimes). Higher COVID-19-specific stress was also associated with greater child intake frequency of sweet and savoury snacks, with some evidence for mediation by snack parenting practices.	Study done on parents of 2–12 year old children
Jeżewska-Zychowicz (2020)	1033 (50.2% f)	39.9 ± 13.1	Poland	During COVID-19	Cross-sectional quantitative online survey	Behaviours concerning food purchases in the COVID-19 pandemic were addressed by two questions: “Have you bought more food than usual in the last month?” (answers: yes/no) and “What products do you buy in larger quantities than before?” (answers: cheese, processed cheese, and blue cheese, meat and cold cuts; bread; fruit and vegetables; bottled water; flour and sugar; canned meat and fish; pasta, groats, and rice; and concentrates and frozen foods). Respondents were also asked about their fears regarding the availability of food, namely “Are you afraid that due to the current situation related to the spread of the coronavirus, there may be serious restrictions in access to food?” Opinions were scored on a 5-point scale: 1—definitely not; 2—rather not; 3—neither no nor yes; 4—rather yes; 5—definitely yes	Food purchase behaviours	Trust in circulating information and perceived stress	The question “To which extent do you trust the following people or institutions as sources of information on the current situation?” was used to assess the trust in institutions and people as a source of information on the current situation during the pandemic. Perceived Stress Scale 4 (PSS-4)		The present study revealed less trust in media than in other sources of information on the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland. Moreover, trust in information from media and other people (friends and bloggers) increased the likelihood of fears of limited access to food as the pandemic continued to spread and increased the likelihood of purchasing larger quantities of food than usual.	The likelihood of experiencing fear of limited access to food increased by 16% with higher perceived stress, by 50% with higher trust in “Mass media and friends”, and by 219% with perceived changes in food availability in the previous month. Trust in “Polish government institutions” decreased the chance of experiencing such fears by 22%. The likelihood of purchasing larger quantities of food than usual increased by 9% with higher perceived stress, by 46% with higher trust in “Mass media and friends”, by 81% with perceived changes in food availability in the last month, and by 130% with fears of limited access to food as the pandemic spreads. Government institutions may have difficulty in disseminating pandemic-related recommendations through media, not only due to relatively low trust people have in media organisations but also due to the increasing likelihood of the occurrence of both fears regarding food availability and panic-stricken food-buying behaviours with increase in trust in this source of information.
Jimenez (2021)	603 (72.0% f)	18+	Spain	During lockdown	Appointment at the Obesity Unit of a Tertiary Hospital and follow-up cross-sectional online study	E-survey	Changes in standard alimentary purchases towards unhealthy and comfort food; snacking	Disturbances in mood and sleep, worry about contracting COVID-19	E-survey		For individuals with current or past obesity, confinement was related to high levels of psychological distress and negative changes in dietary behaviours which resulted in or contributed to weight gain in a large proportion of the sample.	More than one-third of participants (32.5%) substantially changed their dietary habits (score: 5 or 6), while only 17.8% referred no impact of confinement in their regular dietary intake (score: 1). Participants who worried about being infected by COVID-19 showed larger changes in family contact, mood, sleep, dietary habits, purchase of unhealthy food, snacking, and physical activity and had a twofold higher probability for presenting substantial changes in these variables	Subjects were categorised as non-bariatric (non-BS) or bariatric patients according to past history of this treatment modality for obesity
Kalkan Uğurlu et al. (2021)	411 (79.3% f)	20.60 ± 1.72	Turkey	During lockdown (schools closed, social distance)	Online survey	Personal Information Form, Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale, and the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire.	Emotional Eating, External Eating, Restrictive Eating	Anxiety, depression, stress	Personal Information Form, the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS‐42), and the Dutch Eating Behaviour Survey (DEBQ).	Grade, family type, residence, nr. of people in household	This study was conducted to examine the relationship between students’ anxiety, depression, stress levels, and emotional, external, restrictive eating behaviours in the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) process. In the correlation between Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale subscale scores, and the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire subscale scores, there was no significant relationship between only depression and restrictive eating.	It was found that emotional eating and external eating behaviours increased as nursing students’ depression increased, and restrictive eating, emotional eating, and external eating behaviours increased as students’ anxiety and stress increased.
Kalkan Uğurlu et al. (2021)	411(79.3%f)	18+	Turkey	Age 65+ restricted from going out of their homes, walking in the parks and travelling by public transportation, and are not allowed to go out on the streets and open spaces. A curfew was also declared for individuals under 20 and it was stated that the remaining age group (aged 20–65) should isolate themselves in their homes	Online survey	Dutch Eating Behaviour Survey (DEBQ)	Emotional eating behaviours, external eating behaviours, and restricted eating behaviours	Depression, anxiety, stress	Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS‐42)	Socio‐demographic	This study was carried out to examine the relationship between anxiety, depression, stress levels, and restrictive, emotional, and external eating behaviours of the nursing students who stayed at home during the COVID‐19 social isolation process	It was found that emotional eating and external eating behaviours increased as nursing students’ depression increased, and restrictive eating, emotional eating, and external eating behaviours increased as students’ anxiety and stress increased
Yılmaz and Eskici (2021)	1120 (63.2 % f)	33.04 ± 11.04	Turkey	During lockdown	Cross-sectional online survey	Online-survey (number of meals, food and supplement preferences, and appetite)	Consumed foods; food craving	Depression symptoms	Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D Scale)		The pandemic period caused changes in the nutrition, physical activity and psychological status of the individuals participating in the research. It was determined that the individuals had different levels of depression risk, and the highest risk was observed in the females under 35 years of age and those with higher educational levels. It was determined that the consumption of carbohydrates increased, physical activity levels decreased and sleep patterns changed due to the increase in the time spent sitting and lying down.	It was determined that the individuals showed different levels of depression symptoms during the pandemic period (29·1 % of the individuals showed mild, 34·2 % moderate and 23·4 % severe depression symptoms during the pandemic period). Especially, carbohydrate food consumption increased, and physical activity status and sleep patterns changed due to the increased time spent sitting and lying.
Kaufman-Shriqui (2021)	3797 (75% f)	18+	Different countries: survey were included in any of the study languages: Arabic, English, French, Hebrew, Italian, Spanish or Russian.	During lockdown	Cross-sectional, international online study	Adapted Israeli Mediterranean diet screener (I-MEDAS)	Pre-pandemic diet in comparison with current diet.	Anxiety	7-Item Generalised Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7)	Country of residence; education; work setting; current occupational status; current quarantine/isolation; health status	This internationally distributed online survey conducted in a variety of widely-spoken languages detects associations between anxiety levels and dietary patterns, albeit in a self-selected sample. Poor diet quality was associated with weight gain, which could contribute to obesity.	The majority (54%) of participants reported at least mild anxiety, while 25% reported moderate anxiety or more severe. Mediterranean diet score reduced odds of elevated anxiety.
Kaufman-Shriqui (2021)	3797 (75% f)	18+	Among Israeli respondents and translated into six other languages: English, Arabic, Spanish, French, Italian, and Russian	During lockdown	Cross-sectional online survey	The Israeli Mediterranean diet screener (I-MEDAS); self-reported weight change	MedDiet, diet quality change	Anxiety	The 7-item Generalised Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7)	Country of residence; education; work setting; current occupational status; current quarantine/isolation; health status	This study examined associations between changes in diet pattern and body weight and anxiety levels during the COVID-19 pandemic among Israeli respondents to an international online survey. During the COVID pandemic, changes in nutrition quality and habits were associated with greater anxiety.	Almost 60% indicated that their pre-pandemic diet was healthier than their current diet, and 25.2% indicated they had gained weight during the pandemic. The median Mediterranean diet score was 9 (IQ = 3). While the median General Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7) score was 5 (IQ = 8), only 37.3% of participants reported at least mild anxiety (a GAD-7 score of 5 or more), while 10.7% reported moderate anxiety or greater (a GAD-7 score of 10 or more).	Worsening of diet quality during the pandemic, weight gain, and isolation significantly increased odds of at least mild anxiety
Kaya et al. (2021)	1012 (81.7% f)	28.3 ± 8.7	Turkey	During lockdown	Cross-sectional online survey	32-Item questionnaire was created that questions food selection and habits.	Food preparation, different cleaning procedures after buying food, skipping meals and food preferences (dairy products, meat and meat products, vegetables and fruits, grains, beverages and nutrition supplements).	Anxiety, fear	The Generalised Anxiety Disorder-7 test (GAD-7), The fear of COVID-19 Scale (FCV-19).		In this study, nutritional attitudes and habits that changed due to fear and anxiety status were evaluated during the COVID-19 pandemic.	In pandemic, fear and anxiety caused individuals to skip breakfast and snacks less, but more at lunch. A positive significant correlation was observed between the increased consumption of yoghurt, cheese and water and FCV-19S scores. There was a positive significant correlation between cheese, legume, nuts-seeds, cake-cookies, dessert and tea consumption and GAD-7 scores.	Inverse association between anxiety, fear and nutrition habits during the COVID-19 pandemic (mediator)
Keenan et al. (2022)	211 (75.4%f)	18+	UK	Three months after the first UK lockdown	Cross-sectional	The 5-item subscale of the Palatable Eating Motives Scale, validated 20-item food frequency questionnaire was used (Robinson et al. 2017), items were adapted from Robinson et al. (2021)	Food as a coping mechanism, diet quality, weight promoting eating behaviours	Psychological distress	The 21-item self-report Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS), The nine item physical symptoms of stress questions from Keenan et al. (2021)	Food insecurity	The current study sought to establish how pandemic-related food insecurity might be associated with self-reported changes in eating behaviours that promote weight gain (e.g. consuming larger portions, increased snacking) and poorer diet quality, via the mediating pathway of distress and maladaptive coping strategies (eating and drinking to cope). They found that COVID-19 lockdown related food insecurity is associated with increases in weight promoting eating behaviours, which are explained by distress and eating to cope.	An indirect association existed between food insecurity and eating behaviours, through distress and eating to cope. As such, greater food insecurity was associated with more distress; distress associated with increased eating to cope and eating to cope with more weight promoting eating behaviours. The pathway between food insecurity and diet quality was slightly different with food insecurity associated with increased distress and distress then associated with a less healthy diet, without the presence of eating or drinking to cope.
Kekäläinen et al. (2021)	358 (100% f)	54.3 ± 2.0	Finland	In Finland, in spring 2020, these restrictions included, for example, the closing of schools and most government-run public facilities (e.g. libraries, museums, sports facilities) and a 10-people limit for public gatherings. people over 70 years of age were recommended to avoid human contact	Population-based cohort study, selfreported questionnaire	“Which of the following descriptions corresponds best to your everyday eating?” The response options were: I eat regularly: my meal and snack times are fairly constant (=1), I eat quite regularly (=2), I eat quite irregularly (=3), I eat very irregularly: a whole day or days can pass without me eating hardly anything, and then on some days I may eat the amount of food of several normal days (=4). y. Perceived change in eating habits was asked about in the in-pandemic-I questionnaire with multiple questions addressing changes in the consumption of various foods (e.g. “Compared to prior, did you eat vegetables . . . ?”).	Eating habits	Depression	The Centre for Epidemiological StudiesDepression Scale (CES-D)	Physical activity, personality traits	This study investigated pre- to in-pandemic changes in health behaviours and depressive symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic and the role of personality traits in these changes	Women reported more depressive symptoms and unhealthier eating habits at the end of the emergency conditions compared to the pre-pandemic time. An increase in depressive symptoms was associated with changing to unhealthier eating habits. Higher extraversion was associated with a perceived decrease in alcohol consumption and with changing to healthier eating habits. Women with higher neuroticism reported changing to either healthier or unhealthier eating habits. In general, some women reported healthier lifestyle changes while other women reported the opposite.
Kowalczuk and Gębski (2021)	926 (75.1% f)	18+	Poland	During lockdown	Online questionnaire	Questionnaire was created using the Google Forms web survey platform: concerned such aspects as: changes in the organisation of food purchases (6 items in positional scale from 1—much less often to 5—much more often), changes in eating patterns (5 items on a positional scale from 1—much less to 5—much more), and changes in the level of consumption of 16 groups of food products, alcoholic beverages and supplements (on the positional scale from 1—I consume much less to 5—I consume much more).	Food consumption	Fear (of contracting Covid-19)	Questionnaire contained two questions—the question about the fear of getting infected (on a 3 point scale: 1—I am very afraid of getting sick, 2—I am afraid of getting sick, 3—I am not afraid of getting sick) and the question about compliance with the restriction introduced (on a 3 point scale: 1—I definitely follow the isolation rules, 2—I rather follow the isolation rules, 3—I do not follow the isolation rules).	Place of residence, income, and professional activity, compliance with the mandatory rules of isolation	The results of the study show a close relationship between the level of fear of contracting Covid-19 and the degree to which isolation rules are followed. A significant influence of both these factors on eating behaviour was also noticed.	The greatest stability in the majority of the analysed areas of nutritional behaviours was observed in the group moderately afraid of Covid-19 infection and moderately abiding by the isolation rules. The group declaring the lowest level of fear and the lowest compliance with the isolation rules has shown the greatest decrease both in regularity and quality of their meals. This group also exhibited a significant increase in the consumption of alcoholic beverages.	Through cluster analysis, three consumer groups were identified: fearing and following the rules (FFR), 38% of the general studied population; moderately fearing and following the rules (MFFR), 43.2%; not fearing and not following the rules (NFFR), 18.8%.
LaCaille (2021)	234 (58.6% f)	18+	US	Confinement	Longitudinal study	Four questions related to frequency of specific food intake	Diet quality	Stress, mental health symptoms	Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), The Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4)	Physical activity	The purpose of this study was to examine changes in health behaviours and perceived stress in emerging adults over the first year of college and to determine whether prepandemic health behaviours were protective for mental health and stress during the initial changes after the COVID-19 pandemic	Sedentary time increased and physical activity decreased over time, but 20%–35% of students reported improvements in these behaviours. Dietary changes appeared mixed, with some improvements noted early during COVID-19. perceived stress increased over time. Multiple regression indicated that of the health behaviours examined for protective effects on mental health and stress during the pandemic, only diet quality emerged as a significant predictor.
Landaeta-Díaz, González-Medina, et al. (2021)	1725 (82.3% f)	33.2 ± 10.3	Chile	During lockdown	Cross-sectional online study	The Food Intake Questionnaire (established in accordance with the Food-Based Dietary Guidelines for the Chilean population)	Food consumption	Anxiety symptoms, anhedonia	The Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), The Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale (SHAPS)		Study aimed to evaluate the association between symptoms of anxiety and/or anhedonia to food consumption patterns during the period of COVID-19 quarantine in Chile.	During the first months of the COVID-19 pandemic in Chile, 37.4% of participants reported an increase in food serving size, and 44.5% increased body weight. Secondly, increased anxiety levels were associated with increasing food serving size and body weight, whereas anhedonia only with increased body weight. Thirdly, sugar-sweetened beverage intake, pastry and fast/junk food were associated with increased body weight.
Landaeta-Díaz, Agüero, et al. (2021)	10551 (79.2%f)	18+	12 countries: Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Mexico, and Spain	Lockdown	Cross-sectional study	Food intake questionnaire	Food consumption and frequency	Anxiety, inability to experience pleasure	Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) spanish version, Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale (SHAPS)		Study has shown that during the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, in Spanish-speaking Ibero-American populations, both anxiety and anhedonia are related to consuming certain foods. In this way, people with anxiety/anhedonia eat less healthy at the beginning of the lockdown. They were prompt to consume palatable foods more often and increase their serving sizes.	Anxiety and anhedonia were associated with consuming unhealthy/palatable foods, including sugar-sweetened beverages, pastries, fried food, and fast food, and an increase in food serving size. People with anhedonia consumed fewer fruits and vegetables in comparison to people without anhedonia. An increase in average body weight was observed during confinement for COVID-19.
Lehtisalo (2021)	859 (48.8% f)	60–77 (68.2 ± 4.7) at baseline and 78.1 ± 4.6 years in July 2020	Finland	First wave of COVID-19	Postal survey send to participants from the Finnish Geriatric Intervention Study to Prevent Cognitive Impairment and Disability (FINGER), an ongoing longitudinal study.	Specific survey developed, included questions about health, health-care use, lifestyles and daily living, quality of life, mood, and personality in relation to the COVID-19 outbreak	Diet and food consumption	Loneliness	Specific survey developed, included questions about health, health-care use, lifestyles and daily living, quality of life, mood, and personality in relation to the COVID-19 outbreak	Living status	Study reports on lifestyle and health behaviours during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic (March–May 2020) in a sample of Finnish older adults who all were at risk of dementia, and some already had dementia.	Lifestyle factors did not change dramatically in our sample during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. The most relevant change was a reduction in leisure time physical activity, as expected, because most sports and leisure facilities were closed. In terms of diet, fruit and vegetable consumption mostly improved or remained unchanged.
León-Paucar et al. (2021)	589 (49.6%f)	18+	Peru	Quarantine	Cross-sectional study	Food frequency questionnaire (FFQ)	Eating habits	Body image	Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ)		The purpose of this study was to identify an association between depressive symptoms, dietary intake, and body image during the first stages of the national quarantine imposed by the Peruvian government for the COVID-19 pandemic. Overall, the results of this study confirm that depressive symptoms are associated with the dietary intake and body image of the participants.	A total of 37.7% and 43.6% of the women reported depressive symptoms and dissatisfaction with body image, respectively. Depressive symptoms were associated with dietary intake and dissatisfaction with body image. Dissatisfaction with body image was associated with dietary intake.
Li et al. (2021)	634 (70% f)	18.75 ± 1.56	China		Longitudinal survey	Three Factor Eating Questionnaire-R18 (TFEQ-R18)	Disinhibited eating	Negative affect	10 Negative affect items (e.g. distressed) from the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS)	Perceived mortality threat	This study aimed to examine whether perceived mortality threat and negative affect mediate the relationship between trait self-control and disinhibited eating during the pandemic	Self-report measures of trait self-control (T1), perceived mortality threat (T2, T3), negative affect (T2, T3), and disinhibited eating (T2, T3) were successively completed. Trait self-control was found to be negatively associated with negative affect, perceived mortality threat, and disinhibited eating during the mid-term and later stage of the pandemic. Disinhibited eating was positively associated with negative affect and perceived mortality threat. The longitudinal mediation results demonstrated that trait self-control (T1) could negatively predict disinhibited eating (T3) through negative affect (T2) rather than through perceived mortality threat. These findings suggest that trait self-control is of great importance in regulating psychological discomfort and disinhibited eating during stressful periods and that negative affect might be the main psychological mechanism underlying the relationship between self-control ability and disinhibited eating.	Among college students
López-Moreno et al. (2020)	675 (30.1%f)	39.1 ± 12.9	Spain	During and before lockdown (interruption of free movement and work routine)	Cross-sectional online study	Changes in weight, Emotional eater questionnaire (EEQ)	Dietary habits, food consumption, snacking, food choices	Mood, nervousness	Questions included in the online survey	BMI, quality of sleep, physical activity, gender, mood changes	The aim of this study is to evaluate the effects of COVID-19 home confinement on the food habits, lifestyle and emotional balance of the Spanish population.	38.8% of the respondents experienced weight gain while 31.1% lost weight during confinement. The increase in body weight was positively correlated with age and BMI. 39.7% reported poorer quality sleep, positively correlated with BMI and with age. 44.7% of the participants had not performed physical exercise during confinement with differences by sex, by age, by BMI and by sleep quality. According to an emotional-eater questionnaire, 21.8% and 11% were classified as an emotional eater or a very emotional eater, respectively.
Madalı (2021)	1626 (69.6%f)	18+	Turkey	Self-isolation and lockdown on some days	Cross-sectional study	Emotional Eating Scale (EES), Turkish version also shows three subscales: disinhibition, type of food, and guilt	Emotional eating, eating habits, food habits	Stress (related to foods)		Hours of sleep, physical activity	The study aimed to evaluate the emotional eating behaviours, changes in weight, appetite, and eating habits of Turkish individuals during the COVID-19	The study showed the emotional eating behaviours, changes in weight, appetite, and eating habits of Turkish individuals during the COVID-19.Participants reported an increased food intake and the majority are emotional eater at different levels; the obese ones have a higher emotional eating score. The study surprisingly reported that participants reduced the consumption of carbohydrate-rich foods, and especially underweight preferred nutrients of high quality.
Marchitelli (2020)	63 (66.7% f)	46.38 ± 14.5	Italy	During lockdown	Cross-sectional online survey	Weight gain, The Binge Eating Scale (BED)	Compulsive binge eating, food intake at meals, food intake between meals, intake of snacks/junk food, night eating episodes	Depression, anxiety, stress, emotional regulation, psychological distress	The General Health Questionnaire-12" (GHQ-12); The Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale" (DASS-21); Risk perception was assessed by two variables (perceived severity and perceived likelihood) and they adapted items from Chao and Lee; The Social Connections (SC) Subscale; The Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale" (DERS)	Risk perception, social support	The present study sought to investigate the impact of psychological and psychosocial variables on weight gain in patients affected by overweight/obesity, both with and without a psychiatric diagnosis, over the COVID-19 lockdown. Concurrently, it explored these patients’ changes dietary habits.	Among overweight patients, 50% reporteed weight gain during lockdown (those with obesity reported 66%). Weight gain predictors were stress and low depression for patients without a psychiatric diagnosis and binge eating behaviours for patients with a psychiatric diagnosis. The experienced stress lead to more night eating episodes (60% among overweight people without psychiatric diagnosis (not obese)).	Only investigated overweight people and clinically obese
Marty et al. (2021)	938 (78.5% f)	38.7 ± 11.6	France	During lockdown	Cross-sectional online questionnaire	French version of the Food Choice Questionnaire; validated food frequency questionnaire	Nutritional quality of diet, food choice motives,	Stress, depression, lonliness	Asked for current levels of stress, depression, and loneliness (3 individual items) on a continuous scale from 0 to 100	Importance of weight control, health, ethical concern and natural content	Participants were retrospectively asked about their food choice motives and food consumption during the month before and in the first month of the lockdown. The importance of nine food choice motives was assessed: health, convenience, sensory appeal, natural content, ethical concern, weight control, mood, familiarity, and price.	Food choice motives significantly changed and an increase in the importance of weight control was associated with increased nutritional quality, whereas an increase in the importance of mood was associated with decreased nutritional quality. The lockdown period in France was related to a decrease in nutritional quality of diet on average, which could be partly explained by changes in food choice motives. The lockdown was indeed related to modification of food choice motives, notably with an increase of mood as a food choice motive for 48% of the participants, but also with an increase of health (26%), ethical concern (21%) and natural content (19%) suggesting a growing awareness of the importance of sustainable food choices in some participants.
Mason et al. (2021)	1820 (61% f)	19.28 ± .47	US	During COVID-19	Baseline and follow-up assessments from an ongoing longitudinal cohort	Online self-report measures of weight at baseline and follow-up	Overeating, eating high fat or sugary foods	Depression	10-Item Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale-Short Form	Gender, ethnicity, race	An appreciable proportion of young adults from Southern California reported using food to cope with the COVID-19 pandemic. Use of this coping strategy was associated with greater increases in body weight before versus after the pandemic, and this is strongest among individuals with higher baseline body weight	Women and individuals experiencing more depressive symptoms were more likely to engage in COVID-19–related overeating and unhealthy food intake in this study. These results are consistent with previous evidence collected before the pandemic that female gender and depression are associated with dysregulated eating behaviours (e.g. overeating, emotional eating)
Mata et al. (2021)	5449 (50.2% f)	36–59 48.6%	Germany	Closed all schools and daycares (except for emergency care), and put social distancing requirements into effect.	Online survey	Participants reported how many snacks they ate per day (i.e. amount of foods high in sugar, salt, or fat consumed outside of meals, such as chocolate, ice cream, chips)	Snack consumption	Anxiety, depression, lonliness	Anxiety was assessed with two items from the German version of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory short scale, Depression was assessed with two items from the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-2), Loneliness was measured by asking, “In the last 7 days, how often have you felt lonely?”		To understand the mental health response to repeated and prolonged stress during the COVID-19 related lockdown and the role of specific health behaviours to buffer against this stress.	More screen time, more snacking, and less physical activity were related to higher symptoms of anxiety, depression, and loneliness across all time points.
Matsungo and Chopera (2020)	507 (63.0% f)	18+	Zimbabwe	During lockdown	Cross-sectional online survey	Online questionnaire (assesed food consumption patterns)	Diet and food consumption	Stress, anxiety, body-image perceptions	Generalised Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) scale; nine figural BMI-SMT	Place of residence, current employment, food access	The impacts of the COVID-19-induced lockdown in Zimbabwe was associated with increases in food prices and decrease in dietary diversification. In addition, the COVID-19-induced lockdown has resulted in disrupted consumption patterns and elevated GAD symptoms.	The results show that 96.6% (n = 490) of the participants reported that their diet and consumption patterns have changed during the COVID-19-induced lockdown. Concerning individual food groups, 57.8% of the participants stated that there was a decrease in consumption of “other vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables”. There was also a decrease in the intake of “other vegetables” (48.5%), “other fruits” (64.9%), “nuts and seeds” (45.0%), “cereals breads and tubers” (41.1%) and “dairy product” (44.9%).	The prevalence of GAD in this study was 40.4% and mostly affected women (63.5%, p = 0.909), 31–40 years age group (49.6%, p = 0.886)
McAtamney et al. (2021)	136 (64.7% f)	18+	UK	Gradual easing of the initial lockdown measures	Online survey	Emotional Eating Scale (EES), The Salzburg Emotional Eating Scale (SEES)	Emotional eating	Negative affect, alexithymia	The Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21), The Toronto Alexithymia Scale, short-form version of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS-SF)		There were two aims of the present study. The first aim was to explore perceived changes in eating behaviour compared to usual before COVID-19, and compare with self-reported negative affect during the same time period. The second aim was to examine direct and indirect relationships between alexithymia and emotional eating, to expand upon previously proposed models and apply to eating behaviours during the pandemic.	Findings demonstrated that those who reported changes to their eating behaviours during the pandemic also reported greater levels of depression during the same time frame. Mediation analyses revealed that difficulties identifying and describing feelings both predicted emotional eating indirectly via emotion dysregulation.
Modrzejewska et al. (2021)	868 (89.06%f)	18+	Poland	Lockdown	Cross-sectional study	Eating Motivation Survey, the Emotional Overeating Questionnaire	Eating motives, emotional overeating	COVID-19-related stress	COVID-19-related stress measure		Study aimed to provide an understanding of eating motives and other factors predicting emotional overeating during COVID-19 in a sample of Polish adults. They examined associations between gender, BMI, eating motives and emotional overeating. Additionally, taking into account the current COVID-19-related situation, they considered the extent to which COVID-19-related stress could be related to emotional overeating.	The results of the present study confirm that emotion-related predictors (eating motives in the form of affect regulation and COVID-19-related stress) are associated with higher emotional overeating, over and above the variance explained by demographic variables (gender and BMI) and other eating motives (visual- and attitude-related predictors: liking, pleasure, visual appeal; body- and health-related predictors: need and hunger, health, weight control).
Nashwan et al. (2020)	200 (40.5% f)	65.5% between 31–40	Qatar	Nurses were immediately assigned to care for patients with the coronavirus, which was not completely understood. Nurses had to quickly adjust to new clinical pathways and policies, master new nursing skills, and report to substandard working environments with less or zero time for training and orientation [3]. Furthermore, they had to wear personal protective equipment (PPE) for extended hours	Online survey	Emotional Eater Questionnaire (EEQ)	Eating habits	Depression, anxiety, stress, QoL	Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale 21 (DASS-21), World Health Organisation Quality of Life (WHOQOL-BREF)	Sleep quality, social bonds	The purpose of this study was to explore the differences between nurses’ characteristics with COVID-19 facility designation, and sleep quality, depression, anxiety, stress, eating habits, social bonds, and quality of life.	Nurses working in COVID-19 facilities had increased odds of having higher EEQ categories by 2.62 times (95% CI 1.18, 5.83). Similarly, no statistically significant associations were found between any of the nurses’ characteristics and OSSS-3 categories. On the other hand, no statistically significant associations were found between any of the nurses’ characteristics and QOL domains except for the gender and social relationships’ domain.	Study done on nurses
Ortenburger et al. (2021)	1012 (53% f)	18–24	Ukraine and Poland	Lockdown and isolate people	Online questionnaire?	Attitude towards positive dietary habits understood as maintaining healthy eating behaviours and susceptibility towards bad diet habits understood as unhealthy eating behaviour during distress and anxiousness. Scores were put in the Likert scale from 1 to 4 points, where 1 was the lowest and 4 was the highest score. First of those two questions regarding attitude towards eating was positive, which means the higher score, the better the person felt about their attitude towards maintaining proper eating habits in the time of pandemic. The second was about negative attitude, therefore the higher they scored, the more prone they were to succumb to unhealthy eating habits during pandemic	Diet habits	State- and trait-anxiety	State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)	Social support	In the scope of mentioned premises, we state that the aim of this study is to verify how biological variables, such as declared gender or university students attend, plays a significant role in the anxiety level and if this division makes diverse profiles of attitudes towards eating behaviours and sense of social support during the COVID-19 pandemic.	Nutrition habits and chosen education type are associated with trait-anxiety level, which was also elevated (mean values of 49–50 points). Chosen factors had a partial influence on the anxiety level of students, therefore their mental health should concern shaping positive nutrition habits and social support.
Owen et al. (2021)	13.829 (75.5% f)	50.4 ± 14.9	Australia	During lockdown	Population-based, self-completed online survey	Item 5 of the Patient Health Questionnaire 9	Overeating and poor appetite	Anxiety, depression	Generalised Anxiety Disorder Scale-7, Patient Health Questionnaire 9	Living circumstances, occupation	This study reports the effect of the COVID-19 lockdown on appetite and overeating in Australian adults during the first month of emergency measures. Data on sociodemographic factors, symptoms of anxiety and depression, and the impact of COVID-19 and lockdown were also collected.	The weighted prevalence of being bothered by poor appetite or overeating in the past 2 weeks was 53.6%, with 11.6% (95% CI 10.6, 12.6) of the cohort reporting poor appetite or overeating nearly every day. High levels of anxiety, concern about contracting COVID-19, being in lockdown with children and reporting a severe impact of the lockdown were associated with increased odds of poor appetite or overeating.	There are factors that may limit (older age, regional dwelling, being more accustomed to spending time at home) or increase (female gender, anxiety, depression, being in lock-down with children) risk of being bothered by poor appetite or overeating for adults living in a high-income country during lockdown necessitated
Pak et al. (2021)	362 (66.9% f)	26.89 ± 8.22	Turkey	During lockdown	Cross-sectional online survey	Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire-R21 (TFEQ-R21)	Emotional eating	Intolerance of uncertainty, depression, anxiety, fear of COVID-19	Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale (IUS-12), Fear of COVID-19 Scale (FCV-19S), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS)	Work status, completed degree, having high-risk family members of COVID-19	This study provided evidence that individuals tend to eat more than usual depending on how much they find uncertain situations as uncomfortable and may feel fearful and/or depressed due to COVID-19.	Results showed that emotional eating was positively associated with intolerance of uncertainty, fear of COVID-19, and depression. Moreover, fear of COVID-19 had positive correlation with intolerance of uncertainty and depression. It is concluded that depression most likely developed by fear was triggered by intolerance of uncertainty during the COVID-19 pandemic and leading to emotional eating.	Regarding demographic factors, it was found that gender had a significant association with emotional eating and fear of COVID-19 whereas age was negatively associated with intolerance of uncertainty. More specifically, females were found to have significantly higher levels of emotional eating
Papandreou et al. (2020)	1.002 responders in Spain (70.3% f) and 839 in Greece (66.7% f)	Spain (46.1 ± 13.3), Greece (42.4 ± 11.7)	Spain, Greece	Spain: strict confinement; Greece: lighter lockdown	Web-based cross-sectional survey	The Dutch eating behaviour questionnaire (DBEQ), BMI	Restrained eating, emotional eating, external eating	Depression, anxiety	Patient Health Questionnaire‐9 (PHQ‐9); General Anxiety Disorder‐7 (GAD‐7)		This study demonstrated high scores of inappropriate eating behaviours and a high frequency of depressive and anxiety symptoms in two Mediterranean countries during the COVID‐19 outbreak. Findings revealed that compared to Greek participants, Spanish participants, that faced more severe COVID‐19 pandemic and stricter lockdown measures, were associated with lower restraint and external eating and increased anxiety symptoms, but not with depressive symptoms or emotional eating.	Spanish participants had lower average scores of restraint and external eating compared to Greek participants, but no difference was seen for emotional eating. In Spain, 13.6%, and 12.3% of the survey respondents reported moderate to severe depressive and anxiety symptoms, respectively, whereas in Greece the respective values were 18.8 and 13.2%. After adjusting for several risk factors, a higher prevalence of anxiety symptoms was observed in Spain compared to Greece, but no difference was seen for depressive symptoms.
Park, Kim, Yang, Lim, et al. (2021)	104 (72.12% f)	32.04 ± 7.64 (20+)	South Korea	During lockdown	Cross-sectional online study	Nine items for nutrition were assessed using a five-point Likert scale to measure nutrition during the week before and after COVID-19	Food intake	QoL, depression	The World Health Organisation quality of life scale abbreviated version (WHOQOL-BREF); the Centre for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D)	Education level, residential area, mediaction taking	The study obtained novel data on the changes in the lifestyle, mental health, and quality of life of South Korean adults before and after the onset of the pandemic.	There was a significant decline in physical and other meaningful activities, including activities of daily living, leisure, social activity, and education. However, there were no significant changes in nutrition, except in the consumption of carbohydrates and minerals. Participants reported that their quality of life and mental health had decreased after the pandemic struck.
Park, Kim, Yang, Park (2021)	327 (50.8%f)	55+	South Korea	Post COVID-19 pandemic	Cross-sectional study	YLP questionnaire	Nutrition	Depression, Quality of Life	The Korean version of the Centre for Epidemiological Studies Scale (CES-D), The Korean version of the World Health Organisation Quality of Life-Life Brief (WHOQOL-BREF)		Data demonstrates that large-scale isolation strategies to control a pandemic resulting in low levels of physical activity, activity participation, and unhealthy diets among older adults in Korea are associated with depression and a lower level of quality of life.	The results showed that there was a significant decrease in physical activity and activity participation during the pandemic. In terms of nutrition, there was no statistically significant change pre and post the outbreak COVID-19, except for the intake of protein, fat, and vitamins. Additionally, the results showed that the resulting lifestyle differences seem to have had a negative impact on depression and quality of life among older adults in South Korea.
Pellegrini (2020)	99 (79% f)	52.2 ± 9.8	US	During COVID‐19	Online survey	Survey questions	Eating habits	Stress, anxiety, worry, concern	Report on stress over the past week using a 1–7 Likert scale (not at all stressed, 7 = extremely stressed)	Education, marital status, work status, having school‐age children at home	Many individuals enrolled in a weight‐loss program experienced more stress during COVID‐19 compared to before the pandemic. This stress was related to more mental health challenges as well as more difficulties finding time for weight management efforts.	The results of this study suggest that the majority of individuals with overweight and obesity enrolled in a weight‐loss program are experiencing high levels of stress as a result of the COVID‐19 pandemic, with many of the participants experiencing a change in their work situation Greater stress was associated with more deleterious effects on mental health (e.g. worry, anxiety, concern over COVID‐19) and more difficulties finding time for weight‐management efforts. Higher stress was also associated with more difficulty staying on track with eating habits; however, this was no longer significant after adjusting for BMI and education. Interestingly, stress was also associated with having school age children at home.
Pope et al. (2022)	537 (100% f)	32.38 ± 4.6 (19–43)	US (42.6%, n = 243), Ireland (41.2%, n = 235) UK (10%, n = 57)	During COVID-19	Cross-sectional online survey of pregnant women	The validated 20-item Prenatal Health Behaviour (PHBS) scale	Taking vitamins and maintaining a good diet	General stress, pregnancy specific stress, concern about COVID-19, mental health	The 4-item Perceived Stress Scale Short Form (PSS-4); 17-item Revised Prenatal Distress Scale (NuPDQ); 6 items were developed to examine women’s concerns about the COVID-19 pandemic; the validated 12-item Short Form Survey (SF-12)	Marital status, education, household income, ethnicity, nationality, country of residence, weeks of pregnancy, and number of previous pregnancies	This study examined pregnant women’s levels of stress, mental and physical health, and health behaviours during the COVID-19 pandemic.	Pregnant women reported high levels of pregnancy-specific and COVID-19-related stress, and low levels of mental and physical health, during the pandemic. Pregnant women in this study generally reported high levels of adherence to public health advice and pregnancy health behaviours. Stress and general mental health outcomes were best predicted by well-being factors (including stress and social support). Health impairing behaviours (e.g. poor diet) were predicted by both well-being and demographic factors.	Study done in pregnant women
Prete et al. (2021)	604 (71.69%f)	29.8	Italy	Lockdown	Online survey	15-Item questionnaire QueMD	Consumption of food	Distress	Kessler psychological distress scale (K6),	Sleep quality	This study is the first study that simultaneously analyzes adherence to the MedDiet, PA, quality of sleep and distress levels within a young Italian cohort during the COVID-19 induced lockdown. Results indicate that dietary and lifestyle habits were negatively impacted during the lockdown	Compared to pre-COVID-19 times, 67% of people changed their eating habits and increased consumption of foods containing added sugars. Women and men with low adherence to the Mediterranean Diet (MedDiet) were more likely to be physically inactive. Results from logistic regression showed a three times higher risk of being inactive if adherence to the MedDiet was low, especially in men between 26 and 35 years. Lower levels of distress were reported in males who were physically active (89%).
Robertson et al. (2021)	264 (78.0% f)	18–79	UK	During lockdown	Draws on data collected as part of an ongoing longitudinal survey	Measure consisted of nine statements using a 5-point Likert scale, from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5).	Eating attitudes and behaviour	Psychological distress, mental health	Several questions about mental health diagnoses; the 4-item version of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-4)	Gender, ethnicity, current living arrangements	In conclusion, adults in the UK report a wide range of changes to their eating- and exercise-related thoughts and behaviours, as well as their body image, during the lockdown associated with this pandemic. Growing challenges with regulating food consumption, being more preoccupied with food and worsening body image are all linked with psychological distress. Importantly, some groups appear to be more susceptible to these changes, with women, young people and those with pre-existing mental health problems – especially eating disorders – being at heightened risk.	There were large individual differences in perceived changes in eating, exercise, and body image in this period. Women were more likely than men to report increasing struggles with regulating eating, preoccupation with food and worsening body image. Those with a current/past diagnosis of eating disorders reported significantly greater difficulties in regulating eating, increased preoccupation with food, exercise thoughts and behaviours and concern about appearance, even when compared to those with other mental health and developmental disorders.
Robinson et al. (2021)	2.002 (61.7% f)	34.74 ± 12.3	UK	Formal social lockdown measures (included school closures, non-essential travel, meeting members of other households and closure of all non-essential businesses)	Online survey	Food frequency questionnaire (SFFQ) in which consumption frequencies of “healthy” and “unhealthy” key food groups are measured (diet quality), 8-item Appetitive Drive subscale of the Addiction-Like Eating Behaviour Scale (overeating)	Diet quality, overeating	Well-being	10 Items on mental/physical health and interpersonal experiences compared to before lockdown (e.g. “Felt lonely”, “Had conflict/arguments with others”) using a 7-point scale (1 = A lot less frequency, 7 = A lore more frequently), 5 item WHO well-being scale.	Higher BMI, decline in mental health	A large number of participants reported negative changes in eating and experiencing barriers to weight management (e.g. problems with motivation and control around food) compared to before lockdown. These trends were particularly pronounced among participants with higher BMI.	Being male, younger, lower in education, white and having a higher BMI were all (independently) significantly associated with lower diet quality during lockdown. Being younger, female, lower in education, having a previous psychiatric diagnosis, having had suspected/confirmed COVID-19, higher BMI and experiencing negative mental health since lockdown were (independently) significantly associated with increased overeating during lockdown. A large number of participants reported negative changes in eating and physical activity behaviour (e.g. 56% reported snacking more frequently) and experiencing barriers to weight management (e.g. problems with motivation and control around food) compared to before lockdown. Reporting a decline in mental health because of the COVID-19 crisis was not associated with higher BMI, but was predictive of greater overeating and lower physical activity in lockdown. It should also be noted that scores on the WHO well-being measure reported by this sample indicate lower levels of well-being that previous norm values for the UK, which may reflect the detrimental effects that the COVID-19 crisis is having on well-being.	Participants reporting having ever been diagnosed with a psychiatric condition (33%) or having a high-risk medical condition for COVID-19 (24%) were relatively high.
Robinson et al. (2021)	723 (67.0% f)	30.7 ± 9.6	UK	During lockdown	Retrospective survey	One item: 'Compared with before the COVID-19 virus crisis, I have eaten healthily/ binged on food ' 1–7 scale (1 = a lot less than usual, 2 = less than usual, 3 = a little less than usual, 4 = about the same, 5 = a little more than usual, 6 = more than usual and 7 = a lot more than usual)	Eating healthy and bingeing on food	Loneliness, depression, anxiety, stress	20-Item UCLA loneliness scale, DASS21 which included seven items on depression (ω = 0.91), anxiety (ω = 0.80) and stress (ω = 0.89)	Higher income household, having obesity, a previous psychiatric diagnosis, higher stress levels	Both improvements and declines in weight gain protective behaviours were reported, but 79% of participants reported a decline in one or more weight gain protective behaviours. Both participants with a diagnosis of psychiatric illness or obesity (body mass index [BMI] ≥ 30) were most likely to report declines in weight gain protective behaviours and show an overall profile of weight management behaviours worsening. Participants experiencing high levels of stress also reported reductions in more weight gain protective behaviours.	Both reductions and increases in weight gain protective behaviours were common. For example, although 32% reported eating healthily less frequently, 30% reported eating healthily more frequently compared with before the COVID-19 crisis. However, 49% of participants reported that they were bingeing on food more frequently, whereas only 19% reported this occurring less frequently. Stress was associated with declines in a greater number of behaviours.
Romero-Blanco (2020)	213 (80.8% f)	20.5 ± 4.56	Spain	Prohibition on going outside to engage in sporting or social activities	Observational, cross-sectional, pre-post study	PREDIMED questionnaire	Adherence to Mediterranean diet	Anxiety/depression, perceived health status	EuroQol 5D (EQ-5D) questionnaire	Sociodemographic characteristics	The aim of this study was to evaluate students’ physical activity and sedentary behaviour at two points in time: before and during the coronavirus lockdown. As a secondary aim, we also wanted to look at changes resulting from other factors (alcohol, tobacco, diet, stages of change, symptoms of anxiety/depression and sociodemographic characteristics).	In the analysis by group, minutes of physical activity increased significantly during lockdown among the following groups: women; all years of study except final year; normal or low BMI; those who did not eat a Mediterranean diet; and those in the preparation or action stage of change. Sitting time increased in all groups of the variables gender, alcohol, symptoms of anxiety/depression and Mediterranean diet. As we have seen, healthy habits that are ingrained in the population are not affected by the lockdown: this is the case of the Mediterranean diet. In this study, we observed that students that ate a Mediterranean diet spent more time doing physical activity and that their physical activity patterns did not change significantly. This suggests that those that lead a healthy lifestyle pay attention to both diet and exercise and persist with their habits regardless of the environment.
Rossinot (2020)	1.454 (63.5% f)	Range 24–65	France	During lockdown (strong restriction on travel to only what was strictly necessary, such as food shopping, medication purchasing, care and work (when remote work was not possible) and outings close to home (limited individual sports activities, pets’ hygiene). Any breach in those rules could immediately be penalised by a fine, or prison in the case of recidivism.)	Online survey	Self-evaluation of change during the lockdown of their diet (less balanced, no change, more balanced)	Balanced diet	Mental state indicator, concern about COVID's impact	Mental state indicator: 0–3. impact of the pandemic (around the respondent in her/his county based on INSEE data): on the participant’s and their relatives’ health, on their work and on their incomes.	Demographic (age, sex), socioeconomic (diploma – education level), health (obesity, hypertension, other risk factors, ALD-status) variables, behaviours (smoke, alcohol consumption), the composition of the household (alone, with children), housing (overcrowding, outside access).	Is about behavioural changes during lockdown in France. They found out that the lockdown had a positive impact on nutrition (28.7% reported having a more balanced diet, against 17.1% with a less balanced diet).	28.7% reported having a more balanced diet, against 17.1% with a less balanced diet, 22.7% of respondents reported an increased alcohol consumption, as opposed to only 12.2% declaring a decrease, and 11.2% of respondents increased their tobacco consumption, while 6.3% decreased it. In total, 50.6% of the participants reported being more depressed, stressed, or irritable since the beginning of the lockdown. Confinement had a negative effect on every behaviour studied in this survey, except for nutrition. We also found that a negative change in mental state was strongly associated with adverse changes in nutrition, sleep, physical activity, and alcohol consumption. Furthermore, living alone was a strong risk factor for diet, sleep, physical activity, and tobacco consumption. In our survey, the decrease in physical activity was also related to a worsening of mental state. Being a woman was a risk factor for concerns and age was a strong protective factor against negative mental state changes.
Ruiz et al. (2020)	1140 (65% f)	33.91 ± 12.88	UK (n = 230), South Korea (n = 204), Finland (n = 171), Philippines (n = 132), Latin America (n = 124), Spain (n = 112), North America (n = 87), and Italy (n = 80).	During lockdown (“stay at home” orders, closure of schools, businesses and places of congregation, and travel restrictions. During this time, people were allowed to leave their homes only to purchase essential items (e.g. food, medicines), seek essential treatment, go to work (only for jobs considered essential), or to assist and care for dependents)	Web-based survey	Changes in their basic health routines (i.e. eating, sleeping, and exercising), weight, and wellbeing. These changes were assessed on an 11-point scale (−5 = significant decrease, 0 = no change, +5 = significant increase)	General diet	Mental health, well-being	One item from the SF-8 Health Survey: “How much did personal or emotional problems keep you from doing your usual work, school or other daily activities?”, which used the following anchors: 1 (not at all), 2 (very little), 3 (somewhat), 4 (quite a lot), and 5 (could not do daily activities). Changes in their basic health routines (i.e. eating, sleeping, and exercising), weight, and wellbeing. These changes were assessed on an 11-point scale (−5 = significant decrease, 0 = no change, +5 = significant increase).		This study explored the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on perceived health behaviours; physical activity, sleep, and diet behaviours, alongside associations with wellbeing. They completed an online survey reporting possible changes in the targeted behaviours as well as perceived changes in their physical and mental health.	Overall, changes in physical activity during the pandemic were significant for participants’ health (physical and mental) and wellbeing. Multivariate analyses of covariance (MANCOVA) on the final sample revealed significant mean differences regarding perceived physical and mental health “over the last week”, as well as changes in health behaviours during the pandemic by levels of physical activity and country of residence. Follow up analyses indicated that individuals with highest decrease in physical activity reported significantly lower physical and mental health, while those with highest increase in physical activity reported significantly higher increase in sleep and lower weight gain.
Sadler et al. (2021)	428 (63.1% f)	37.5 ± 8.25	US		Online survey	Food intake questions were adapted from food frequency questionnaires to assess the frequency of consumption of specific food types. Emotional overeating subscale from the Adult Eating Behaviour Questionnaire	Emotional overeating, food intake	Stress	16 Items assessing stress in relation to the pandemic (“How stressed are you about the following in relation to the COVID-19 crisis?”)	Cognitive flexibility	The goal of our study was to test whether pandemic-related stress was associated with food intake, and whether relationships between stress and intake were modified by appetitive and cognitive traits.	Data on self-reported change in intake demonstrated that intake of sweets/desserts underwent the greatest increase. Conversely, intake of fast foods showed the greatest decrease. Intake of fruits and vegetables were the least affected by the pandemic. Significant interactions between COVID-19-related stress, emotional overeating, and cognitive flexibility were found across all food types except fruit and vegetable intake. There was a significant positive interaction between COVID-19-related stress and emotional overeating for intake frequency of sweets/desserts, such that individuals with greater emotional overeating showed a stronger positive relationship between COVID-19-related stress and sweets/desserts intake as compared with those with low emotional overeating. Significant interactions between COVID-19-related stress and cognitive flexibility were associated with intake frequency of chips/savoury snacks and fast foods. The interaction for chips/savoury snacks was negative, meaning greater cognitive flexibility was associated with a weaker positive relationship between COVID-19-related stress and chips/savoury snack intake. A similar effect was observed for fast foods; the negative interaction term reflected that greater cognitive flexibility was associated with a weaker positive relationship between COVID-19-related stress and fast food intake. Fruit intake was not associated with COVID-19-related stress, emotional overeating, or cognitive flexibility, while vegetable intake was negatively related to emotional overeating. We did not find evidence for significant three-way COVID-19-related stress x emotional overeating x cognitive flexibility interactions for intake of any food type. Multinomial logistic regression models (Table 5) showed evidence for associations Multinomial logistic regression models showed evidence for associations between emotional overeating and increased intake of sweets and desserts and chips and savoury snacks.
Sagaribay et al. (2022)	69 (49.3% f)	39.81 ± 12.25	US	Quarantine and mitigation restrictions	Longitudinal online survey	Loss of control over eating scale-brief (LOCES-B)	Loss of control over eating	Depression, anxiety, and stress	Depression, anxiety and stress scale (DASS-21)	Sociodemographic	The aim of the study was to assess changes in LOCE longitudinally across two months and relationships with sociodemographics and psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic in the U.S. Positive associations between pandemic-related mental health and eating behaviours were hypothesised; however, sociodemographic relationships and trajectories were exploratory in nature.	A one-way repeated-measures ANOVA revealed statistically significant differences between the Wave 1 and Wave 3 LOCE. Mixed between-within subjects ANOVAs revealed a main effects of time, essential worker status, and mental health constructs. Interaction effects were observed for sex, anxiety, and stress with time.
Salazar-Fernández (2021)	1048 (69% f)	29.52 ± 11.66	Chile	Social distancing measures	Monthly online surveys during the COVID-19 pandemic across six waves	A 5-item scale that evaluates the consumption of comfort food was used. This instrument asked participants across W3 to W6, the following: “During the last week, on how many days have you consumed: Fried meals (e.g. fried meat, fish, eggs, fries), sugary drinks (i.e. cola drinks, bottled juice), desserts or candies (e.g. ice cream, chocolate, candies, cakes, pastries), snacks (potato chips, chocolate bars, candy bar, cookies) and fast food (e.g. hamburgers, pizzas, hot dogs)”	Comfort food consumption	Emotional distress	DASS-21	Perceived impact of COVID	This study longitudinally examines the effect of the perceived impact of COVID-19 on comfort food consumption and whether this effect is mediated by emotional distress	Using structural equation models, we found an indirect longitudinal effect of the perceived impact of COVID-19 (W1) on comfort food consumption (W3 to W6) through increased emotional distress (W2). The perceived negative impact of COVID-19 on comfort food consumption was fully mediated by the emotional distress during the first waves (W3 and W4), ending in a partial mediation in the last waves (W5 and W6). These findings contribute to disentangling the mechanisms by which the perceived impact of COVID-19 affects comfort food consumption over time, and highlight the role of emotional distress.
Sánchez-Sánchez et al. (2021)	637 (74.9% f)	41–50	Spain	Social distancing, restriction of movement and the use of masks	Online cross-sectional study	A questionnaire on consumption frequency with 19 items was self-compiled. The foods included were grouped under cereals, vegetables, fruits, and so on, following the recommendations of the Mediterranean Diet Pyramid. In addition, foods that have been identified as “unhealthy” were also added such as energy drinks, snacks, and so on.	Food consumption	Stress	10-Item Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10)		The aim of this study was to find the level of perceived stress and its relationship with increased food consumption during the “third wave” of the COVID-19 pandemic	Moreover, 36.1% of respondents reported that they had increased the frequency of consumption of some foods, mainly nuts, snacks, and jellybeans, along with coffee, tea, cocoa, and soft drinks. Eating between meals was more pronounced in those with high stress (65.1%) than in those with moderate stress (40.4%) and low stress (20.2%). Furthermore, the respondents with high stress reported greater weight gain. Thus, the results show that the level of perceived stress during the “third wave” of this pandemic increased food consumption.
Sanlier et al. (2022)	1224 (80.6% f)	27.5 ± 9.6	Turkey	COVID-19 home confinement	Online questionnaire	Mindful Eating Questionnaire (MEQ), Intuitive Eating Scale-2 (IES-2), Dietary habits and health information	Main meals, skipping meals, mindful eating, intuitive eating	Perception and attitude towards COVID (e.g. concern)	The five sub-dimensions of the perception and attitude questionnaire used in the study; (1) The perception of COVID-19 (9 items) (1) The perception of causes of COVID-19 (18 items) (2) The perception of control of COVID-19 (14 items) (3) Attitudes towards vaccination (10 items) (4) Avoidance behaviours of COVID-19 (14 items)		The study aimed to test the relationship between attitude and perception about COVID, and intuitive eating and mindful eating	There was no significant correlation between the MEQ score and COVID-19 perception and attitude in this study
Sato et al. (2021)	5929 (68.9% f)	44.0 ± 13.8	Japan	Stay home and strictly refraining them from going to the cit	An online survey on changes in work and life patterns during the pandemic among users of a health app called CALO mama	CALO mama app: Users record items of every meal in the app, and artificial intelligence supports accurate recording by detecting photos of the meals taken by the users.	Frequency of intake of vegetables, fruits, beans, mushrooms, seaweeds, fish, meats, dairy products, snakcs, and alcohol	Depressive symptoms	Two-Question Screening, which comprised the following questions: (a)“During the past month, have you often been bothered by feeling down, depressed, or hopeless?” and (b) “During the past month, have you often been bothered by little interest or pleasure in doing things?” We defined individuals with probable depressive symptoms as those who answered “Yes” to either or both questions.	Time spent working away from home, working at home, commuting, taking care of children, doing housework, exercising, eating, sleeping	This study used longitudinal data from the users of CALO mama health app to examine the change in frequency of intake of various foods during the pandemic. In addition, we explored whether WFH (work from home) and other routine activities (e.g. working hours, and time spent on childcare and housework) were associated with the change in dietary patterns.	Probable depressive symptoms were negatively associated with the frequency of food intake other than snacks and alcohol.
Savarese (2021)	1004 (50.9% f)	18–70, majority range 45–54 (22.7%)	Italy	Phase 2 of disease management, with relatively fewer restrictions, but people are still are required to reduce movement, work from home when possible, and practice social distancing	Questionnaire using CAWI (computer-assisted web interviewing) methodology	"Thinking about the last week, how many times have you had breakfast?", "How many portions of fruit and vegetables do you eat daily?".	Food consumption relevance	Health orientation (concern about COVID-19 disease emergency, information about health, health management under stress, consciousness about the importance of health for the future)	"How concerned are you about the COVID-19 disease emergency?", "With regard to the COVID-19 disease emergency we are experiencing, please indicate how much you are in accordance with the following statements:" I spend a lot of time informing myself about health, Even if under stress, I can effectively take care of my own health, In the future you think that you will be more aware of the importance of health? "Choosing what to eat is a way of expressing myself", "Thinking about the next six months, please indicate how important it will it be for you that food you purchase will strengthen your immune system?", "In the last month how often in your family have you purchased food supplements (antioxidants, vitamins,…)?", "Thinking about the next six months, how likely are you to strengthen your immune system through food consumption?", "Thinking about the next 6 months, are you intended to increase, decrease or keep stable the purchase of products rich in vitamins and/or antioxidants?".		We explore people’s perception of the role of food consumption as a preventive measure and how it reconfigures consumption habits.	Our results suggest that almost half of the Italian population does not perceive that strengthening the immune system through food consumption could help them limit COVID-19's disease contagion. Among these, those who attribute less importance to food as prevention differ in terms of their psychological attitude towards health and food, which seems to represent a different approach to food consumption. Covid-19 and relative fallouts seem to have polarised people’s psychological attitudes towards health and influenced their food selection, potentially increasing the risk for food misconduct.	Two groups were created considering the answers given to the question, “I think strengthening the immune defences through nutrition is important to reduce the risk of COVID-19 disease contagion”. Those who declared that they disagreed totally, disagreed, or neither agreed nor disagreed with this affirmation were grouped together. Those who agreed or totally agreed with it also were grouped together.
Vitman-Schorr (2021a)	201 (52.2% f)	74.3 ± 6.3, 65+	Isreal	During quarantine	Cross-sectional study via telephone	Determine Nutrition Screening Initiative (NSI)	Malnutrition	Loneliness, depression	Loneliness was measured by a single direct question: “Do you sometimes feel lonely?” with four options: never, seldom, sometimes, often. Depressive symptoms were measured by the Geriatrics Depression Scale (GDS)		To examine the direct and indirect effect of loneliness feelings on depressive symptoms, mediated by malnutrition, among older adults from different cultures during the Coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) pandemic quarantine.	High malnutrition and high loneliness were positively associated with depressive symptoms. The results indicated a significant total direct effect (path c; without mediator) of loneliness feelings on depressive symptoms, a significant direct effect, and a significant indirect effect through malnutrition. The results also showed that loneliness feelings were associated with higher malnutrition scores and that malnutrition was positively associated with depressive symptoms.	Jewish and Arab older adults (65+)
Shen (2020)	800 (83%f)	Majority range 25–44 (42.0%)	US	Dependent on state (among others: various declarations of emergency, closure of schools and public meeting places, lockdowns)	Cross-sectional online survey	36-Item Food Choice Questionnaire, 33-item Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire	Food choice motives (health, convience, mood, sensory appeal, price, natural content, familiarity, weight control, ethical concern)	Perceived stress, emotional eating	10-Question Perceived Stress Scale. 33-item Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire, to assess three eating behaviours: emotional eating, restrained eating, and external eating. And a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from “never” (scored 1) to “very often” (scored 5).		This study assessed whether emotional eating mediates the associations between perceived stress levels and food choice motives (i.e. health, mood, convenience, natural content, price, sensory appeal, familiarities, weight control, and ethical concerns) during the Coronavirus Disease 2019 pandemic.	Perceived stress was significantly correlated with emotional eating as well as five out of nine food choice motives: mood, convenience, natural content, price, and familiarity. Emotional eating was significantly correlated with four out of nine food choice motives: mood, convenience, price, and familiarity. The mediation analyses showed that emotional eating mediates the associations between perceived stress and five food choices motives: mood, convenience, sensory appeal, price, and familiarity.	Restrictions may vary per state
Sheng (2021)	108(75.93%f)	18+	China	Lockdown	Online survey	Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q), Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26)	Overeating	Stress, negative affect, Posttraumatic stress	Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), EMA of stress, PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version (PCL-C)		The current study used an EMA to examine the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on eating problems and the mechanism of what might contribute to eating problems during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study showed that the relationships between the perceived severity of COVID-19, stress, NA, PTSS, and eating problems differed when examined at the personal level versus the interpersonal level.	State perceived severity of COVID-19 predicted fewer subsequent eating problems in daily life at the personal level. Both state negative affect and posttraumatic stress symptoms were positively associated with eating problems in daily life. At the interpersonal level, trait-like perceived severity of COVID-19, stress, negative affect, and posttraumatic stress symptoms were positively associated with overall eating problems. There were no mediating effects of stress/negative affect/posttraumatic stress symptoms on the relations between perceived severity of COVID-19 and eating problems at the personal/interpersonal level.
Shimpo (2021)	6000 (49.3%f)	20–64	Japan	Adoption of a “new normal”, which covers shopping,leisure and sports, meals, use of public transportation, and participation in events, wasrequired to prevent the spread of COVID-19	Online cross-sectional questionnaire	The items of change in dietary habits before the spread of COVID-19 included the following question: “Have you made healthier changes to your dietary habits compared with the dietary habits before the spread of COVID-19 (1 year ago, November 2019)?” The following response options were available: “My dietary habitshave become healthier”, “My dietary habits have become unhealthier”, and “My dietary habits have not changed.”	Healthy or unhealthy dietary choices	Fear of COVID-19, stress, included with three sub-scales: fatigue, anxiety, depression	Seven items of the fear of COVID-19 scale; Questiones developed by three researchers who are registered dietitians in Japan	Demographics, sociopsychological variables, medical history, lifestyle habits	This study identified factors related to dietary changes since the spread of COVID-19 in Japanese adults. Dietary habits became healthier, unhealthier, or remained unchanged.Some factors, such as higher fear of COVID-19, changing exercise and sleep times, and smoking were common factors between participants with healthy and unhealthy dietary changes.	Those who changed to healthier diets had higher annual household incomes, changing household income, COVID-19 infection of friends, higher health literacy, decreasing weight, higher frequency of exercise, and started smoking. Those who changed to unhealthier diets were living alone, and had decreasing household income, COVID-19 in-fection of colleagues, higher stress, and weight change.
Simone (2021)	720 (62.08%)	24.7 ± 2.0	US	Covid outbreak	Follow-up online survey	C-EAT (COVID-19 Eating and Activity over Time)	Disordered eating habits	Stress, depression	Kandel and Davies Depressive Mood Scale , stress was measured using two items		The present study aimed to describe the experience of, and factors associated with, disordered eating in a population-based sample of emerging adults during the COVID-19 outbreak.	Low stress management was significantly associated with a higher count of extreme unhealthy weight control behaviours (UWCBs). Food insecurity, higher depressive symptoms, and financial difficulties were significantly associated with a higher count of less extreme UWCBs. Higher stress and depressive symptoms were significantly associated with greater odds of binge eating
Sińska et al. (2021)	1082 (86.3% f)	31.6 ± 11.98	Poland	All Polish universities closed down on the 12th of March. Public gatherings were banned, the movement of persons and access to public spaces were restricted. Tight restrictions which almost completely banned the use of public spaces remained in force until the 20th of April	Observational cross-sectional online study	Dietary Guidelines Adherence Index (DGA Index)	Adherence to dietary recommendations	Stress, resilience, basic hope	PSS-10, the Brief Resilient Coping Scale (BRCS) and BHI-12 questionnaire		the role of basic hope and resilience in the context of undertaken dietary behaviours in the situations of mental load associated with pandemics.	The value of DGA Index was variable depending on the psychological profile of study participants. The highest adherence to the principles of appropriate nutrition was observed in individuals characterised by the ability to cope with difficult situations and those who quickly adapted to new changing circumstances. The DGA Index values became poorer with the deterioration of the coping ability as regards stress and mental load
Smith (2021)	429 (63.4% f)	37.94 ± 0.76	US	Social isolation and stay-at-home lockdowns	Cross-sectional online survey	Willingness to wait, willingness to work, willingness to pay	Food motivation	Stress	Participants rated their level of stress “right now” and “before the COVID crisis began” on a scale from 1 to 10, where 1 represented “not at all stressed” and 10 represented “extremely stressed”. To capture subjective stress perceptions relating directly to pandemic-associated stressors, participants completed a 16-item “COVID-stress index” in which individuals responded to the question “How stressed are you about the following in relation to the COVID crisis?” for multiple pandemic-related factors including finances and availability of resources, job and career concerns, health and healthcare concerns, and interpersonal concerns within and outside the home. Response options for each item ranged from 1 = “not at all” to 5 = “extremely		To investigate effects of COVID-related stress on food motivation	Higher COVID-related stress levels were associated with willingness to expend more effort and pay more for food items. These data collected during the pandemic demonstrate that highly processed and sweet foods have high motivating value across multiple measures of motivation, and COVID-related stress increases food motivation across food categories
Snuggs and McGregor (2021)	240 (13.3% f)	Majority range 29–39 (24.2%) and 40–50 (24.2%)	UK	During lockdown (schools, businesses and workplaces closed, while only essential shops were permitted to remain open)	Online survey	Food Choice Questionnaire, Family Mealtime Goals Questionnaire and an open-ended question about their experiences of food in the pandemic.	Food Choice Questionnaire: health, mood, convenience, sensory appeal, natural content, price, weight control, familiarity and ethical concern. Family Mealtime Goals Questionnaire: stress/conflict avoidance, homemade food, shared family food, family involvement at mealtimes, price, occasional treats, ease of preparation and high/low fat regulation. Open-ended responses: “is there anything else you would like to add regarding your food choices?” and for those indicating that they lived with children, “is there anything else you would like to add regarding your family meal times?”.	Mood, stress/conflict avoidance	Included in Food Choice Questionnaire and Family Mealtime Questionnaire	Gender, age, proximity to shops, living arrangements (with children), price, restricted choice, support local business.	Valuable insight into some of the food-related challenges that individuals have faced during the Covid-19 lockdown in the UK and how this has affected their decision making and priorities.	Our sample reported placing more importance on health, mood and weight control during lockdown. While the health goal is typically associated with positive healthy eating behaviours, weight concern and preoccupation with dieting can in fact lead to weight gain in some groups and the role of mood in this context is unclear. It is possible that the concern with health in this sample is associated with or caused by concern about weight gain rather than healthy eating behaviours per se. In the case of mood, women reported a significantly higher increase in this factor than men across time which may have implications for female mental wellbeing. Age differences were also observed, with younger participants showing significantly more change than older participants over the lockdown period.	A number of sub-groups were identified who may be particularly vulnerable to food-related challenges in future lockdowns
Szwarcwald (2021)	45,161 (53.6% f)	18+	Brazil	Quarantine	Cross-sectional study	Data from the web-based ConVid – Behaviour Survey	Healthy food intake (consumption of sweets/chocolates on 2 or more days a week; consumption of vegetable and fruit on 5 days or more a week;)	Depression, anxiety, loneliness		Sociodemographic characteristics, pre-existing health conditions, health care seeking, sleep	Study investigating the factors affecting brazilians’ self-rated health during the COVID-19 pandemic, based on data from the web-based behaviour survey. This study used a hierarchical model to identify the most important predictors of worsening of health status during the COVID-19 pandemic. The main proximal factors were seeking care for mental health problems and COVID-19 symptoms, as well as self-reported psychological issues.	Healthy food intake and physical activity practice during the pandemic showed a positive influence on health state perception while sedentary habits and adherence to social restraint measures negatively affected health status evaluation. Considering pre-existing health conditions, worsening of health status was greater among those with poor self-rated health.
Tran (2020)	7124 (66.2%f)	34.4 ± 8.8	Vietnam	Measures including the social distancing and lockdown	Online survey	Current health-related behaviours compared with before the pandemic (less healthy, unchanged and healthier)	General eating behaviour	Anxiety, depression, healt-related QoL	Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7), patient health questionnaire (PHQ)-9, 36-Item Short Form Survey		We examined impacts and interactions of COVID-19 response involvement, health-related behaviours and health literacy (HL) on anxiety, depression, and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) among healthcare workers (HCWs).	Those with unchanged/healthier eating and higher HL scores had lower likelihood of anxiety, depression and higher HRQoL scores.	Only among health-care workers
Tribst (2021)	4780 (79.1%f)	Majority range 36–60 (49.0%)	Brazil	Lockdown and mobility restrictions (the most restricted phase of quarantine in the country and 881–990 deaths daily)	Online survey	12 Items that focussed on assessing changes on the two dimensions (healthy and unhealthy) of diet quality in Brazil. Its content was based on an instrument presented by Sattamini in 2019, which was modified to be applied quickly	Changes in the consumption of food subgroups	Feelings	They answered about personal feelings experienced during the pandemic period that could affect their dietary habits: anxiety/peace of mind/fear/mental exhaustion/faith/stress/confidence/none	Socio-demographic characteristics and pandemic exposure	This study aimed to identify individual, household and sociodemographic factors associated with changes in food consumption that lead to changes in the diet quality, in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic concerning Brazilian adults.	Positive feelings (peace of mind, confidence, and faith) were at least 2.5 times more prevalent among those who improved their diet quality than among those who worsened it. Compared to the general participants, for each additional positive feeling reported, the odds of improving diet quality increased by 1.41 and there was a 33% less chance of worsening it. The opposite was also true, negative feelings (anxiety, stress, mental exhaustion, and fear) were more prevalent in the group that worsened the diet quality. Compared to the general population, each additional negative feeling resulted in an odd 1.21 upper of this outcome and 10% less chance of improving the diet.
Tribst (2021)	4780 (77.9%f)	18+	Brazil	Most restricted phase of quarantine	Exploratory cross-sectional online study	12 Items (based on food markers pointed by the Brazilian Household Budget Survey)	Increased or decreased consumption of food subgroups that mark positive or negative food patterns (changes in diet quality)	Anxiety, peace of mind, fear, mental exhaustion, stress, confidence	Individual items on the statistical analysis	Demographics, beliefs about food safety, cooking skills, family support	This study aimed to identify individual, household and sociodemographic factors associated with changes in food consumption that lead to changes in the diet quality, in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic concerning Brazilian adults	The changes in the consumption of food makers observed during the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic showed an improvement of diet quality for 21.1% (n = 1008) of the interviewees and worsening for 12.5% (n = 596). The main drivers for changing the participants’ eating pattern, either to improve or worsen diet quality, were related to time and house cooking administration and organisation, followed by feelings, beliefs, and family support experienced during the most restricted phase of quarantine in Brazil.
Vandevijvere et al. (2021)	8640 (51.9% f)	18+	Belgium	During lockdown (closure of hotels, bars and restaurants as well as schools/universities, non-essential industries and cultural, recreational or sportive activities)	3 Cross-sectional online health surveys	Self-reported changes dietary behaviours ('Has the consumption of the following foods increased, remained unchanged or decreased since the start of the confinement?')	Fruits, vegetables or salad, sugared soft drinks, and sweet or salty snacks	Fear of running out of food	Three questions: often true, sometimes true or never true for the household (option do not know/refused was also foreseen): – I/We worried whether my/our food would run out before I/we got money to buy more – The food that I/we bought did not last, and I/we did not have money to get more – I/we could not afford to eat healthy balanced meals		Food insecurity during the COVID-19 confinement measures in Belgium was associated with adverse changes in most dietary behaviours.	Adults who often or sometimes feared that food would run out during confinement had significantly higher odds of decreased v. unchanged fruits and vegetables consumption and significantly higher odds of increased v. unchanged soft drink consumption.	No baseline data to compare the figures to levels of food insecurity in Belgium before the start of the COVID-19 pandemic
Vitman Schorr (2021b)	201 (52.2% f)	74.3 ± 6.3, 65+	Israel	Policy of social distancing	Telephone interviews	NSI (Determine Nutrition Screening Initiative) instrument	Malnutrition	Loneliness, depressive symptoms	Single direct question: “Do you sometimes feel lonely?” with four options: never, seldom, sometimes, often. Depressive symptoms were measured using the GDS (Geriatrics Depression Scale.	Gender, marital status, education	We examined the effect of loneliness and the role of two mediating factors, depressive symptoms and malnutrition on subjective age among older adults during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, and explored how the pandemic is affecting subjective age.	The relationship between feelings of loneliness and subjective age during the COVID-19 pandemic was mediated by malnutrition, but not by depressive symptoms. An association was found among feelings of loneliness, malnutrition, and subjective age.	Jewish and Arab older adults (65+)
Wang (2020)	2289 (48.6% f)	27.5 ± 12.0	China	During the two-to-three-month COVID − 19 home isolation (isolated at home for an average of 77 days)	Cross-sectional design with a convenience sample	Questionnaire adopted from the online nutritional survey of Guangdong Nutrition Society and Sun Yat-sen University	Eating quality	QoL	World Health Organisation Quality of Life (QoL) questionnaire (WHOQOL-BREF)	Sleep quality, physical activity	This study aimed to explore how COVID-19 is affecting the health-related quality of life (QoL) among Chinese adults. 23% of adults reported changed their diets to be healthier, and 30% reported consuming more vegetables, fruits, and milk productsthan before home-isolation.	During home isolation, 65.3% of participants were satisfied with their QoL. The mean summed global score of the QoL was 188.9. Among the four domains, the highest mean scores were for the environmental domain and social relationships, while the lowest mean scores were for the physical domain. Only the environmental domain showed a significant gender difference. Additionally, the consumption of whole grains, meat products, and vegetables and fruits associated with SB in all samples. SB was negatively associated with the QoL in the overall were correlated with the overall QoL score in men. However, only the consumption of sample. Additionally, the consumption of whole grains, meat products, and vegetables and fruits was correlated with the overall QoL score in women and was vegetables and fruits were correlated with the overall QoL score in men (p < 0.001). However, only negatively with the physical domain. Additionally, no direct relationships were found in men between the QoL and meat products, whole grains, and vegetables and fruits. Similarly, significant direct relationships were not identified in women between diet and QoL, nor between sleep and diet. Therefore, no significant mediation effects of sleep quality were observed on the relationships between the QoL and the consumption of meat products, whole grains, and vegetables and fruits
Wilson (2021)	887 (64.04%f)	18+	UK	Social distancing due to UK government-enforced restrictions	Cross-sectional online survey	The Dietary Instrument for Nutrition Education (DINE) questionnaire	Fat intake	Anxiety, depression, mental well-being	Becks Anxiety Inventory (BAI), Becks Depression Inventory (BDI), The short-form Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (SWEMWBS)		This study explored how dietary fat intake was impacted in a sample of the UK public who were social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic. A higher proportion of a sample of UK adults social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic recorded decreased fat intake when compared to levels prior to social distancing. There appeared to be no associations between fat intake and mental health.	Approximately, 34% recorded medium-to-high levels of fat consumption during social distancing. Around 48% reported decreased fat intake during social distancing compared to usual levels, while 41.3% documented increased fat intake. Fat intake was not significantly associated (p > 0.05) with any measures of mental health.
Xie (2021)	1026 (63.6% f)	range 16–26, majority range 19–21 (50.6%)	China		Online survey	Chinese version of the state of diet scale	State of diet	Depressive symptoms, sleep quality, concerned about negative impact of COVID-19 on education or employment	Chinese version of the Self-Rated Depression scale, Chinese version of the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index scale	Degree of focussing on the COVID-19	This study investigated the prevalence and influencing factors of depressive symptoms, poor sleep quality and poor diet in students at Kunming Medical University during the early part of the COVID-19 outbreak.	Students in the fifth grade and students with high levels of concern about the negative impact of COVID-19 on their education or employment were more likely to report poor diet. In the univariate logistic regression models, gender and degree of focus on COVID-19 were significantly associated with depressive symptoms. Gender, grade and degree of concern about the negative impact of COVID-19 on education or employment were related to poor sleep quality.	Only among medical students
Xu et al. (2020)	22.459 (36.8% f)	27.9 ± 7.8	China	"After" the epidemic (8 April 2020)	Online questionnaire, stratified analysis of multinomial logistic regression models	Willingness to reduce dietary intakes/habits of salt, fried and sugary foods	Eating out of anxiety and boredom, increase in anxiety and mood-driven eating,	Subjective impact (epidemic concern, impact of psychology, impact on life), self-efficacy	They developed the questionnaire by themselves to assess (1) General characteristics: gender, age, height, weight, education level, marital status, occupation, main living place during the outbreak of COVID-19, etc.; (2) Subjective impacts including subjective perception of epidemic concern and impact on psychology, life, work during the outbreak of COVID-19; (3) Baseline of dietary habits before the COVID-19 outbreak: salt intake (high, medium, and low), frequency of fried foods intake (times per week), and sugary foods intake (times per week) which consisted of sugar, sugary beverages, desserts, cookies, candies, fruit products, dairy desserts. (4) Willingness to change dietary habits: self-reported change willingness (unchanged, increase, decrease, uncertain) of food intake, including salt, fried foods and sugary foods during the COVID-19 outbreak or later.		They aimed to explore the relationship between subjective perception of impact due to COVID-19 and willingness to change dietary habits during the outbreak of the COVID-19 in China.	84.5% of participants self-reported epidemic concern (middle or above), and 60.2%, 66.3% and 66.8% self-reported impact (middle or above) on psychology, life, work respectively. 31.9%, 46.0% and 41.0% of respondents reported their willingness to reduce their dietary intakes of salt, fried foods, and sugary foods. Respondents with higher psychological impact were more likely to increase their dietary intake of salt, fried foods, sugary foods. Most respondents with higher epidemic concerns and higher impacts on psychology, life, work were more likely to reduce eating salt, fried foods, sugary foods. After the epidemic, early stage of positive improvement to a proper diet was observed, whereas the opposite tendency was also found in some respondents with higher impact on psychology. It has been shown that the outbreak has significantly increased psychological problems, such as depression and anxiety, and health care workers, pregnant women, and the elderly are more susceptible.	average BMI 22.1 ± 4.9
Ye et al. (2021)	3310 (53.3% f)	19.74 ± 1.50	China	Lockdown	Online survey	Overeating was measured by loss of control eating subscale of three-factor eating scale. Participants rated each item on a four-point scale ranging from 1 (very inconsistent) to 4 (very consistent) with higher scores showing higher levels of overeating.	Overeating	Coronavirus stress	The Coronavirus stress was assessed by Coronavirus Stress Measure (CSM)	Life history strategy	This study examined the mediating effect of sense of control and the moderating effect of coronavirus stress on the relationship between life history strategy and overeating	College students’ coronavirus stress moderated the associations between life history strategy and college students’ sense of control and between control sense and overeating. The association between life history strategy and sense of control was stronger for those with lower coronavirus stress, and the association between sense of control and overeating was stronger for those with lower coronavirus stress.	Study among college students
Zachary (2020)	173 (55.5% f)	28.1 ± 12.5	US	Social distancing and self-quarantine (caused grade schools, universities, parks, and any non-essential business to close)	6 Surveys that were condensed into a single questionnaire	The Weight and Lifestyle Inventory (WALI) was used to assess possible changes in factors that contribute to eating.	Eating with friends and family, eating in response to sight and smell of food, overeating at dinner, overeating at lunch, overeating at breakfast, eating because I crave certain foods, eating when depressed or upset, eating when stressed, eating when angry, eating when anxious, eating when bored, snacking after dinner	Stress	Perceived Stress Scale		The purpose of this study was to quantify the impact that self-quarantine has on behaviours associated with weight gain. Risk factors for weight gain during self-quarantine are inadequate sleep, snacking after dinner, lack of dietary restraint, eating in response to stress, and reduced physical activity.	22% of the sample stated they gained 5–10 pounds. Within those who gained 5–10 pounds, there was a significantly higher percentage of the total sample who reported they increased eating in response to sight and smell, eating in response to stress, and snacking after dinner compared to those who stated they did not change those behaviours at all. Interestingly, even though the average PSS score for the entire sample indicated a moderate stress level, the PSS did not predict weight change. However, those who gained 5–10 pounds were more likely to eat in response to stress. It has been reported that roughly 40% of the population will decrease food intake in response to stress, 40% report increased food intake, and 20% report no change. Thus, although stress levels were at the level that indicated moderate stress, it is more than likely that within only those who use food as a coping mechanism did it deleteriously impact weight status. The current study did not assess differences in the stress response.	Subject recruitment through e-mail was sent out on social media accounts and then dispersed from there, it could be argued that the sample is not an adequate representation of the population.
Znazen et al. (2021)	144 (62.5% f)	19.3 ± 1.8 (range 18–22)	Saudi Arabia	Government guidelines and protective measures during the confinement, such as curfew and restrictions; suspension of prayers in all mosques in the city; the banning of travel, sporting events, and social gatherings; the closing of all amusement parks, entertainment zones, and restaurants; etc.	Online questionnaire and completed a cognitive performance test (d2 test) before and during 75 days of confinement	Simple Lifestyle Indicator Questionnaire adapted and modified (SLIQ)	Lifestyle behaviours (including dietary habits, physical activity, alcohol ingestion, smoking, and stress)	Stress, attention	Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), d2 test		The aim of the present study was to determine the effects of COVID-19-induced home confinement on stress, attention, and lifestyle behaviours and the correlations between them.	The data showed a significant difference between before and during confinement in total PSS, CP, E, and all lifestyle behaviours. Significant correlations existed between total PSS score, CP (concentration performance), E (errors), and lifestyle behaviours. Home confinement has a negative effect on stress, attention, and lifestyle behaviours. However, poorer lifestyles were partially counteracted /mitigated by an increase in healthy food consumption.	Only university students

Table 3. Examples of measures that were used more than once.

Eating behaviour scales:

AEBQ, Child and Adult Eating Behaviour Questionnaires BED, Binge Eating Scale

DEB, Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire PHBS, Prenatal Health Behaviour scale

SDBQL, Short Diet Behaviours Questionnaire for Lockdowns

Psychological factors scales:

BAI, Beck Anxiety Inventory CES-3, Depression scale

DASS-21, DASS-42, Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale DERS-16, Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale

EQ-5D, Quality of Life

FCV-19, Fear of COVID-19 scale

GAD-7, GAD-2, General Anxiety Disorder GDS, Geriatric Depression Scale

GHQ-12, General Health Questionnaire – Psychological distress HADS, Hospital Anxiety Depression Scale

HAM-A, HARS, Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale HAM-D, HDRS, Hamilton Depression Rating Scale IBSS, Ideal Body Stereotype Scale

IUS-12, Intolerance of Uncertainty

PHQ-2, PHQ-4, PHQ-9, Patient Health Questionnaire – Depression PSS-4, PSS-10, Perceived Stress Scale

PSSS, Perceived Social Support Scale

SWEMWBS, Short Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale STAI, State Trait Anxiety Inventory

ULS-4, Loneliness Scale UCLA-3, Loneliness scale

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Data availability statement

All available information is presented in the manuscript and in the additional files.