Gender differences in grading: teacher bias or student behaviour?

Figures & data

Table 1. Data available for both school grades and SIMCE test scores.

Year/Grade	4th grade	6th grade	8th grade	10th grade
2011	Yes	–	Yes	–
2012	Yes	–	–	Yes
2013	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
2014	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
2015	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
2016	Yes	Yes	–	Yes
2017	Yes	–	Yes	Yes
2018	Yes	Yes	–	Yes

Table 2. Gender test score gap, by evaluation scheme.

		Spanish			Math
		School grades	SIMCE test	Difference	School grades	SIMCE test	Difference
		(non-blind)	(blind)		(non-blind)	(blind)
		(1)	(2)	(3)	(1)	(2)	(3)
4th grade	Female	0.136	0.094	0.042	0.008	−0.034	0.042
		$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$
	Male	−0.134	−0.092	−0.041	−0.008	0.033	−0.041
		$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$
	Differences	0.270	0.186	0.083	0.016	−0.068	0.084
		$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$
6th grade	Female	0.187	0.106	0.081	0.068	−0.033	0.101
		$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$
	Male	−0.183	−0.103	−0.079	−0.067	0.032	−0.099
		$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$
	Differences	0.370	0.209	0.161	0.135	−0.065	0.200
		$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$
8th grade	Female	0.194	0.106	0.088	0.041	−0.071	0.112
		$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$
	Male	−0.191	−0.104	−0.087	−0.040	0.070	−0.110
		$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$
	Differences	0.385	0.209	0.175	0.081	−0.141	0.222
		$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$
10th grade	Female	0.197	0.138	0.059	0.032	−0.045	0.077
		$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$
	Male	−0.199	−0.139	−0.060	−0.032	0.046	−0.078
		$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$
	Differences	0.396	0.278	0.118	0.064	−0.091	0.155
		$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$

Notes: Standard errors are reported in parentheses.

Table 3. Descriptive statistics.

	4th grade		6th grade		8th grade		10th grade
	Mean	SD	Mean	SD	Mean	SD	Mean	SD
(a) Student level
1 = Female	0.50	$\left(0.50\right)$	0.49	$\left(0.50\right)$	0.50	$\left(0.50\right)$	0.50	$\left(0.50\right)$
Father's education	12.40	$\left(3.58\right)$	12.20	$\left(3.62\right)$	11.89	$\left(3.73\right)$	11.84	$\left(3.74\right)$
Mother's education	12.54	$\left(3.39\right)$	12.32	$\left(3.44\right)$	11.97	$\left(3.54\right)$	11.90	$\left(3.56\right)$
Household income	6.65	$\left(5.98\right)$	6.33	$\left(5.79\right)$	5.78	$\left(5.56\right)$	5.62	$\left(5.52\right)$
1 = Ethnic group	0.05	$\left(0.21\right)$	0.05	$\left(0.22\right)$	0.05	$\left(0.22\right)$	0.05	$\left(0.23\right)$
1 = Foreign student	0.004	$\left(0.06\right)$	0.006	$\left(0.08\right)$	0.004	$\left(0.06\right)$	0.003	$\left(0.05\right)$
4th grade score			0.33	$\left(0.99\right)$	0.27	$\left(1.03\right)$	0.32	$\left(1.02\right)$
School attendance	92.82	$\left(5.07\right)$	93.38	$\left(4.75\right)$	93.67	$\left(4.64\right)$	93.59	$\left(4.84\right)$
1 = Grade retention	0.05	$\left(0.23\right)$	0.06	$\left(0.24\right)$	0.07	$\left(0.25\right)$	0.10	$\left(0.30\right)$
1 = Do homework			0.69	$\left(0.46\right)$	0.78	$\left(0.41\right)$	0.77	$\left(0.42\right)$
1 = Like to study			0.45	$\left(0.50\right)$	0.49	$\left(0.50\right)$	0.48	$\left(0.50\right)$
Observations	931,129		577,761		587,549		725,472
(b) Teacher level
1 = Female	0.87	$\left(0.34\right)$	0.77	$\left(0.42\right)$	0.70	$\left(0.46\right)$	0.63	$\left(0.48\right)$
Experience	13.71	$\left(11.18\right)$	13.25	$\left(11.79\right)$	12.68	$\left(11.66\right)$	11.84	$\left(10.95\right)$
1 = Permanent contract	0.63	$\left(0.45\right)$	0.55	$\left(0.47\right)$	0.53	$\left(0.47\right)$	0.51	$\left(0.46\right)$
Working hours	37.45	$\left(5.16\right)$	37.46	$\left(6.04\right)$	37.36	$\left(6.43\right)$	37.82	$\left(6.81\right)$
Observations	16,906		16,595		17,356		12,825
(c) Class level
Class size	26.37	$\left(6.96\right)$	25.22	$\left(6.68\right)$	24.84	$\left(6.49\right)$	24.84	$\left(6.36\right)$
Number of boys	13.31	$\left(4.26\right)$	12.76	$\left(4.11\right)$	12.52	$\left(4.02\right)$	12.36	$\left(4.87\right)$
Number of girls	13.06	$\left(4.57\right)$	12.46	$\left(4.50\right)$	12.32	$\left(4.50\right)$	12.48	$\left(5.23\right)$
Observations	35,305		22,908		23,656		29,205
(d) School level
Enrolment	576.27	$\left(410.00\right)$	587.44	$\left(413.34\right)$	594.34	$\left(415.05\right)$	749.39	$\left(464.62\right)$
1 = Public	0.41	$\left(0.49\right)$	0.41	$\left(0.49\right)$	0.44	$\left(0.50\right)$	0.29	$\left(0.46\right)$
1 = Voucher	0.53	$\left(0.50\right)$	0.53	$\left(0.50\right)$	0.50	$\left(0.50\right)$	0.60	$\left(0.49\right)$
1 = Private	0.07	$\left(0.25\right)$	0.06	$\left(0.24\right)$	0.06	$\left(0.24\right)$	0.10	$\left(0.30\right)$
1 = Urban	0.90	$\left(0.30\right)$	0.90	$\left(0.30\right)$	0.90	$\left(0.30\right)$	0.95	$\left(0.23\right)$
1 = Metropolitan	0.36	$\left(0.48\right)$	0.35	$\left(0.48\right)$	0.34	$\left(0.47\right)$	0.35	$\left(0.48\right)$
Number of classes	8.48	$\left(6.41\right)$	5.74	$\left(4.11\right)$	5.77	$\left(4.11\right)$	12.07	$\left(10.85\right)$
Observations	4161		3994		4101		2420

Notes: This table displays the mean and standard deviations (SD) of the main variables used in this study. Sample comprises students – from different year-grade combinations (see Table 1) – who have valid school grades and SIMCE test scores, and a complete set of information on characteristics. The information on students' beliefs and attitudes (i.e. 1 = Do homework and 1 = Like to study) are only available for a subset of 870,765 students (6th grade: 34,714 students; 8th grade: 235,470 students; 10th grade: 288,150 students).

Table 4. Estimation of gender gap in grading.

	Spanish				Math
	4th grade	6th grade	8th grade	10th grade	4th grade	6th grade	8th grade	10th grade
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
Female	0.188${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.076${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.101${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.189${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.066${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.022${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.083${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.028${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.005\right)$
Non-blind	−0.020	−0.008	0.195${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.171${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.203${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.339${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.531${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.577${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.015\right)$	$\left(0.016\right)$	$\left(0.016\right)$	$\left(0.025\right)$	$\left(0.017\right)$	$\left(0.017\right)$	$\left(0.018\right)$	$\left(0.025\right)$
Non-blind × Female	0.083${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.196${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.209${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.147${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.083${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.190${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.202${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.131${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.007\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.007\right)$
Non-blind ×
Father's education	−0.004${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.004${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.010${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.008${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.008${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.012${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.019${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.020${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$
Mother's education	0.003${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.002${}^{\ast \ast }$	−0.008${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.008${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.008${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.014${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.022${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.024${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$
Household income	−0.001${}^{\ast }$	0.000	−0.004${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.002	−0.008${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.012${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.019${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.016${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$
Ethnic group	0.019	0.030${}^{\ast \ast }$	0.046${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.021	0.049${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.101${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.112${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.050${}^{\ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.013\right)$	$\left(0.014\right)$	$\left(0.014\right)$	$\left(0.020\right)$	$\left(0.015\right)$	$\left(0.016\right)$	$\left(0.015\right)$	$\left(0.024\right)$
Foreign student	0.001	0.008	0.096${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.089${}^{\ast \ast }$	0.083${}^{\ast \ast }$	0.123${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.187${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.150${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.026\right)$	$\left(0.042\right)$	$\left(0.034\right)$	$\left(0.035\right)$	$\left(0.034\right)$	$\left(0.047\right)$	$\left(0.044\right)$	$\left(0.033\right)$
Lagged SIMCE score		−0.175${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.186${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.166${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$		−0.150${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.172${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.177${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
		$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$		$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.005\right)$
R-squared	0.097	0.402	0.309	0.272	0.081	0.437	0.355	0.302
Observations	1,862,258	1,155,522	1,175,098	1,450,944	1,862,258	1,155,522	1,175,098	1,450,944

Notes: Dependent variable is the student i's score at evaluation s = $\{NB,B\}$. All regressions include student characteristics (father's education, mother's education, household income, indicators of ethnicity and foreign student) and lagged SIMCE test scores (except for 4th grade students). Standard errors are clustered at school level and are reported in parentheses. ${}^{\ast }p<0.10$, ${}^{\ast \ast }p<0.05$, ${}^{\ast \ast \ast }p<0.01$.

Figure 1. Gender gap in grading using different year-grade combinations: (a) Spanish and (b) Math.

Notes: These figures show the estimates of γ in Equation (5(5) $Y_{is}=\kappa +\alpha F_i+\text{β}N{B}_{is}+\gamma (N{B}_{is}\times F_i)+\mathrm{\Phi }(N{B}_{is}\times X_i)+u_{is}$(5) ) with 95% confidence interval for each year-grade combination.

Figure 2. Gender gap in grading and students' ability: (a) Spanish and (b) Math.

Notes: These figures illustrate the relationship between the grading gap (non-blind minus blind test scores) and students' ability for female and male students. Students' ability corresponds to grade 4 SIMCE test scores. Lines are local polynomial smoothed curves of degree zero using an epanechnikov kernel function with shaded 95% confidence intervals.

Table 5. Gender grading gap by student's ability.

	All	Low-ability	High-ability
		(below median)	(above median)
	(1)	(2)	(3)
(a) Subject: Spanish
6th grade	0.160${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.145${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.219${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$
8th grade	0.173${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.161${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.229${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.005\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$
10th grade	0.116${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.115${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.156${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.007\right)$	$\left(0.009\right)$	$\left(0.006\right)$
(b) Subject: Math
6th grade	0.199${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.186${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.198${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$
8th grade	0.217${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.206${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.204${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.005\right)$	$\left(0.005\right)$
10th grade	0.148${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.122${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.146${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.007\right)$	$\left(0.009\right)$	$\left(0.006\right)$

Notes: Each cell in this table reports the gender grading gap coefficient (γ) from Equation (5(5) $Y_{is}=\kappa +\alpha F_i+\text{β}N{B}_{is}+\gamma (N{B}_{is}\times F_i)+\mathrm{\Phi }(N{B}_{is}\times X_i)+u_{is}$(5) ). All regressions include student characteristics (father's education, mother's education, household income, indicators of ethnicity and foreign student) along with their interactions with non-blind test. Student's ability is measured using 4th grade SIMCE test scores. Low (high) ability students refers to students below (above) the median ability. Standard errors are clustered at school level and are reported in parentheses. ${}^{\ast }p<0.10$, ${}^{\ast \ast }p<0.05$, ${}^{\ast \ast \ast }p<0.01$.

Table 6. Regression of teacher's grading gap across classes.

	(1)	(2)
Average other	0.003
classes (${\overline{GG}}_{j,-c}$)	$\left(0.007\right)$
Weighted average other		0.009
classes (${\overline{GG}}_{j,-c}^w$)		$\left(0.007\right)$
R-squared	0.082	0.082
Observations	222,148	222,148

Notes: Dependent variable is the gender gap of class c taught by teacher j ($G{G}_{j,c}$). All regressions control for teacher characteristics (gender, experience, an indicator of permanent contract and working hours) and include school fixed effects, subject fixed effects, grade fixed effects and year fixed effects. Standard errors are clustered at school level and are reported in parentheses. ${}^{\ast }p<0.10$, ${}^{\ast \ast }p<0.05$, ${}^{\ast \ast \ast }p<0.01$.

Table 7. Regression of gender gap between subjects within the same class.

	(1)	(2)
Gender grading gap in Spanish	0.337${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.333${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$
Gender grading gap in Spanish × Same teacher	0.010	0.009
	$\left(0.008\right)$	$\left(0.008\right)$
School FE		Yes
R-squared	0.178	0.249
Observations	111,074	111,074

Notes: Dependent variable is the gender grading gap in math. All regressions control for teacher characteristics (gender, experience, an indicator of permanent contract and working hours), and include grade fixed effects and year fixed effects. Standard errors are clustered at school level and are reported in parentheses. ${}^{\ast }p<0.10$, ${}^{\ast \ast }p<0.05$, ${}^{\ast \ast \ast }p<0.01$.

Table 8. Stepwise regression: variation of gender grading gap.

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
Subject FE
Math	0.035${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.035${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.018${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.017${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.035${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.011${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$
Grade FE
6th grade	0.101${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.098${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.091${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.088${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$
8th grade	0.140${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.138${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.133${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.129${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$
10th grade	0.072${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.086${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.093${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.088${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.006\right)$	$\left(0.006\right)$
Year FE
Year 2012	0.026${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.024${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.023${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.022${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.005\right)$	$\left(0.005\right)$
Year 2013	0.037${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.036${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.031${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.032${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$
Year 2014	0.027${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.028${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.020${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.022${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$
Year 2015	0.029${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.032${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.023${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.025${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.005\right)$
Year 2016	0.037${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.038${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.026${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.028${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.005\right)$	$\left(0.005\right)$
Year 2017	0.030${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.033${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.020${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.023${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.005\right)$	$\left(0.006\right)$
Year 2018	0.034${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.036${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.020${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.024${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.006\right)$	$\left(0.006\right)$
Teacher characteristics
Female	0.00186	0.00185			0.00073
	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$			$\left(0.002\right)$
Experience	−0.00004	−0.00047${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.00093${}^{\ast }$	0.00061	−0.00075${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.00034
	$\left(0.000\right)$	$\left(0.000\right)$	$\left(0.000\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.000\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$
Permanent contract	−0.01745${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.00725${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.00419	0.00390	−0.00859${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.00342
	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.006\right)$
Work hours	−0.00059${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.00038${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.00030	−0.00026	−0.00034${}^{\ast \ast }$	0.00017
	$\left(0.000\right)$	$\left(0.000\right)$	$\left(0.000\right)$	$\left(0.000\right)$	$\left(0.000\right)$	$\left(0.000\right)$
School FE		Yes		Yes
Teacher FE			Yes	Yes		Yes
Class FE					Yes	Yes
F-test FE		$2.68$	1.43	1.44	2.28	2.20
p-value		$\left(0.000\right)$	$\left(0.000\right)$	$\left(0.000\right)$	$\left(0.000\right)$	$\left(0.000\right)$
Adj. R-squared	0.024	0.060	0.095	0.103	0.393	0.452
Observations	222,148	222,148	222,148	222,148	222,148	222,148

Notes: Dependent variable is the gender grading gap at class-subject level. Standard errors are reported in parentheses. ${}^{\ast }p<0.10$, ${}^{\ast \ast }p<0.05$, ${}^{\ast \ast \ast }p<0.01$.

Table 9. Gender gap in behaviour.

		All students	6th grade	8th grade	10th grade
1 = Do homework	Female	0.78	0.72	0.81	0.82
	Male	0.70	0.65	0.75	0.73
	Difference	0.07${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.07${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.06${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.09${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
		$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$
1 = Like to study	Female	0.51	0.47	0.52	0.54
	Male	0.43	0.43	0.46	0.41
	Difference	0.08${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.05${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.07${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.13${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
		$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$
1 = Grade retention	Female	0.06	0.05	0.05	0.08
	Male	0.09	0.08	0.08	0.11
	Difference	−0.03${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.04${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.03${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.03${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
		$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$
School attendance	Female	93.66	93.57	93.69	93.73
	Male	93.51	93.40	93.38	93.77
	Difference	0.14${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.18${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.31${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	-0.04${}^{\ast \ast }$
		$\left(0.010\right)$	$\left(0.016\right)$	$\left(0.020\right)$	$\left(0.017\right)$
Observations		870,765	347,145	235,470	288,150

Notes: Standard errors are reported in parentheses. ${}^{\ast }p<0.10$, ${}^{\ast \ast }p<0.05$, ${}^{\ast \ast \ast }p<0.01$.

Table 10. Effects of student behaviour on gender grading gaps.

	Spanish			Math
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(1)	(2)	(3)
Female	0.126${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.112${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.058	−0.035${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.047${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.285${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.037\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.033\right)$
Non-blind	0.122${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−1.313${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−1.215${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.494${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.308${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.220${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	$\left(0.015\right)$	$\left(0.059\right)$	$\left(0.063\right)$	$\left(0.017\right)$	$\left(0.065\right)$	$\left(0.065\right)$
Non-blind × Female	0.181${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.147${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.047	0.182${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.144${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.031
	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.049\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.046\right)$
Behaviour
Do homework		0.083${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.077${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$		0.096${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.084${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
		$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$		$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$
Like to study		0.085${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.082${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$		0.057${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.048${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
		$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$		$\left(0.002\right)$	$\left(0.003\right)$
Grade retention		−0.020${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.018${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$		0.078${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.086${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
		$\left(0.005\right)$	$\left(0.006\right)$		$\left(0.005\right)$	$\left(0.006\right)$
School attendance		0.008${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.007${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$		0.014${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.013${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
		$\left(0.000\right)$	$\left(0.000\right)$		$\left(0.000\right)$	$\left(0.000\right)$
Non-blind ×
Do homework		0.257${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.257${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$		0.214${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.212${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
		$\left(0.004\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$		$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$
Like to study		0.090${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.076${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$		0.135${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.120${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
		$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$		$\left(0.003\right)$	$\left(0.004\right)$
Grade retention		−0.330${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.321${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$		−0.281${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.268${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
		$\left(0.007\right)$	$\left(0.008\right)$		$\left(0.009\right)$	$\left(0.008\right)$
School attendance		0.013${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.012${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$		0.006${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.006${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
		$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$		$\left(0.001\right)$	$\left(0.001\right)$
Female ×
Do homework			0.013${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$			0.026${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
			$\left(0.004\right)$			$\left(0.004\right)$
Like to study			0.007${}^{\ast }$			0.017${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
			$\left(0.004\right)$			$\left(0.003\right)$
Grade retention			−0.006			−0.024${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
			$\left(0.007\right)$			$\left(0.007\right)$
School attendance			0.002${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$			0.002${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
			$\left(0.000\right)$			$\left(0.000\right)$
Female × Non-blind ×
Do homework			0.002			0.005
			$\left(0.005\right)$			$\left(0.005\right)$
Like to study			0.026${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$			0.029${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
			$\left(0.005\right)$			$\left(0.004\right)$
Grade retention			−0.026${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$			−0.036${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
			$\left(0.009\right)$			$\left(0.009\right)$
School attendance			0.002${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$			0.002${}^{\ast \ast \ast }$
			$\left(0.001\right)$			$\left(0.000\right)$
R-squared	0.321	0.355	0.355	0.363	0.392	0.393
Observations	1,741,530	1,741,530	1,741,530	1,741,530	1,741,530	1,741,530

Notes: All regressions include student characteristics (father's education, mother's education, household income, indicators of ethnicity and foreign student) and lagged SIMCE test scores, along with their interactions with non-blind test. Standard errors are clustered at school level and are reported in parentheses. ${}^{\ast }p<0.10$, ${}^{\ast \ast }p<0.05$, ${}^{\ast \ast \ast }p<0.01$.