Positive memory intervention techniques: a scoping review

Figures & data

Table 1. Characteristics of the reviewed interventions.

Intervention	Theoretical basis	Reference	Type of Study/Sample/Measures	Format, sessions, frequency, duration and n° of retrieved positive memories	Results of Empirical Studies
Techniques to increase accessibility to and focus on positive memories
Re-experiencing Pleasant Memories using Mental Imagery	Frequency of positive reminiscing predicts the perceived ability to enjoy life in young people. The technique consists of stimulating the memory of positive events through mental imagery or using objects related to those events.	Bryant et al. (2005)	Between group design (randomly assigned to three groups: imagery, physical memento, and control group with neutral task) Students (n=65) Pre-post	Individual modality. 2 sessions a day (10 min) during 1 week. One positive memory per session chosen from a pre-composed list; participants could repeat memories.	Two experimental groups reported increased feelings of happiness throughout the week. Imagery group reported more vivid positive memories than the group that used physical objects.
Broad-Minded Affective Coping (BMAC) intervention	Proposed as “positive” cognitive behavioural therapy to facilitate positive emotions. It focuses on re-experiencing positive memories, through mental imaging exercises, and trying to re-experience the positive emotions accompanying memories.	Tarrier (2010)	Protocol presentation	Individual modality. 1–3 sessions (20–30 min) Allows to work with different memories in each session.	Protocol presentation
		Panagioti et al. (2012)	Between group design (randomly assigned to two groups: BMAC and control group with neutral task) PTSD (n=50) Pre, post-induction, after 2 h and after 2 days.	Individual 1 session (15–20 min) 1 positive memory	BMAC group participants reported more positive emotions, fewer negative emotions, and improved mood; transitory effects
		Johnson et al. (2012)	Between group design (randomly assigned to two groups: BMAC and control group with neutral task) Schizophrenia (n = 50) Pre-post	Individual modality. 1 session (20 min) 1 positive memory	BMAC group participants displayed significantly higher increases in two visual-analogue scales that measured how hopeful and happy they were feeling at that moment.
		Holden et al. (2017)	Within group design Students (n = 123) Pre, post, and 2-week follow-up (n = 59)	Individual modality. 1 session (45 min) 1 positive memory	There were significant increases (small to moderate) in positive affect, feelings of social security, and pleasure on finishing the session; and significant decreases in negative affect. Changes in affect were not maintained at follow-up.
		Mote and Kring (2019)	Comparison by diagnosis; schizophrenia (n = 29) vs. no schizophrenia (n = 26). Pre-post.	Individual modality. 1 session (35 min) 1 positive memory	BMAC significantly increased positive affect but did not influence negative affect in both groups.
Writing about a Peak Positive Experience	Participants have to think about the most wonderful moments of their lives and write about them in as much detail as possible, focusing on the associated emotions and sensations.	Burton and King (2004)	Between group design (Peak Positive Experience group vs. control group with neutral task) Undergraduate students (n = 90) Pre, post and 3-month follow-up.	Individual modality. 3 sessions (20 min) Consecutive days In each session, participants choose same or different memories.	Experimental group displayed higher positive affect after the exercise, while there was no difference in negative affect between two conditions. At follow-up, experimental group had significantly fewer health centre visits.
		Burton and King (2009)	Between group design (Peak Positive Experience group vs. control group with neutral task) College students (n = 38) Pre, post and 4/6-week follow-up (n = 38)	Individual modality. 3 sessions (20 min) Consecutive days In each session, participants choose same or different memories.	Experimental group had better perceived physical health than the control group at post measures and 4/6-week follow-up.
Positive Writing	Subjects are asked to write down their deepest thoughts and feelings about the most intensely positive experience of their life or an extremely important positive issue that has affected them or their life.	Baikie et al. (2012)	Between group design (positive writing, expressive writing, and control group with neutral task) Community (n = 225) Pre, post and 1/4 – month follow-up (n = 294/227)	Individual – Online modality. 4 sessions (20 min) Consecutive days In each session, participants choose same or different memories.	Three groups displayed significant improvement from pre- to post-treatment and at 4-month follow-up on physical and emotional health measures.
		Allen et al. (2020)	Between group design (positive writing vs. control group with neutral task). Community (n = 72). Pre, post, and 4-week follow-up (n = 72)	Individual – On-line modality. 3 sessions (20 min) Consecutive days In each of sessions you can choose the same or different memories.	The results showed no significant difference between the two groups at post-treatment and follow-up after four weeks
Sharing Positive Narratives with a Partner	Participants keep diary of grateful experiences for four weeks. At least twice a week, they share the grateful experiences noted down in their diaries with other individuals.	Lambert et al. (2013)	Between group design (Sharing Positive Narratives group, no sharing group and control group with neutral task) Undergraduate students (n=137) Pre-post	Individual modality. Daily writing task Sharing twice a week 4 weeks No report of number of positives memories.	Group that shared experiences displayed more positive affect, happiness, vitality, and life satisfaction than other two groups.
Processing of Positive Memories Technique (PPMT)	PPMT integrates positive and symptom-focused treatment models; it focuses on increasing positive elements (values, affect, strengths,thoughts), while simultaneously decreasing PTSD severity. PPMT generally consists of training in the elicitation and processing of positive memories through first-person narration.	Contractor et al. (2020a)	Protocol presentation	Individual modality 5 sessions (60–120 min) 3 positive memories	Protocol presentation
		Contractor et al. (2020b)	Between group design (narrating group, writing group, and control group with neutral task) College students with trauma experiences (n=65) Pre-post	Individual modality. 2 session (30 min) 2 weeks 2 positive memories	There was a significant decrease in PTSD symptoms and negative affect and an increase in positive affect in the narrating group.
Techniques to change quality or features of positive memories
Memory Specificity Training (MEST)	MEST aims to improve the specificity with which participants retrieve personal autobiographical memories. MEST consists of training participants to retrieve memories in response to positive/neutral/negative emotional cues, and to describe memories in detail (spatio-temporal, sensory and contextual aspects).	Raes et al. (2009)	Within group design Depression (n = 10) Pre-post	Group modality. 4 sessions (60 min) Once a week More than 10 positive memories chosen from different cues.	Significant reduction in ruminative processes and feelings of hopelessness post-intervention.
		Neshat-Doost et al. (2013)	Between group design (MEST and control group-waiting list) Depression (n = 23) Pre, post, and 2-month follow-up (n = 19)	Group modality. 5 sessions (80 min) Once a week <10 positive memories chosen in response to different cues.	MEST group retrieved higher proportion of specific memories post-training and had lower depression at 2-month follow-up than the control group.
		Moradi et al. (2014)	Between group design (MEST and control group-waiting list) PTSD (n = 24) Pre, post and 3-month follow-up (n = 24)	Group modality. 4 sessions (60 min) Once a week >10 positive memories chosen in response to different cues.	MEST group generated significantly more specific memories and had significantly fewer PTSD symptoms post-training and at follow-up.
		Emsaki et al. (2017)	Between group design (MEST and control group with placebo task) Amnestic cognitive impairment (n = 20) Pre, post, and 3-month follow-up (n = 16)	Group modality. 5 sessions (80 min) Once a week >10 positive memories chosen in response to different cues.	MEST improved working and prospective memory at post-test and 3 monthsfollow-up.
		Eigenhuis et al. (2017)	Within group design Depression (n = 32) Pre, post, and 3-month follow-up (n = 32).	Group modality. 4 sessions (60 min) Once a week >10 positive memories chosen in response to different cues.	MEST increased memory specificity and decrease in depressive symptoms at post-test and 3 month follow-up.
		Werner-Seidler et al. (2018)	Between group design (MEST and control group involving PSC) Depression (n = 59) Pre, post, and 3-month follow-up (n = 51).	Group modality. 5 sessions (60 min) Once a week >10 positive memories chosen in response to different cues.	MEST demonstrated greater improvement in memory specificity and reduction in depressive symptoms at post-intervention and follow-up.
		Sadat Zia et al. (2021)	Within group design Depression (n = 24) Pre-post and 2-month follow-up	Group modality. 5 sessions (60 min) No report of number of positives memories.	MEST was feasible and associated with low drop-out rates and greater self-reported patient and group facilitator satisfaction. Compared with baseline, MEST group had significant improvements in depression, social problem-solving, rumination and hope.
		Hallford et al. (2021)	Between group design (MEST and wait- list control group) Depression (n = 245) Pre, post, and 1-month and 3-month follow-up (n = 174).	Individual online format. Participants completed the sessions at their convenience over a 2-week period. No report of number of positives memories.	The c-MEST group, relative to the control group, scored significantly higher on memory specificity at all time-points following baseline, and lower on depressive symptoms at one and three-month follow-up.
		Farahimanesh et al. (2020), Farahimanesh et al. (2021)	Between group design (COMET and MEST) Cancer patients with PTSD (n=60) Pre-post and 3 months follow-up	Individual modality 7 sessions (COMET) 6 sessions (MEST) No report of number of positives memories.	The authors found a significant alleviation in autobiographical memory bias and significantly fewer PTSD and depression symptoms in COMET group compared to the MEST group at post-training and 3-month follow-up.
Positive Memory Enhancement Training (PMET)	PMET is applied individually in a single session and aimed to increase the quality of positive memories as a means to reduce sadness through multisensory work with happy memories.	Arditte Hall et al. (2017)	Between group design (PMET and control group with neutral task) Depression (n=27) Pre-post	Individual modality. 1 session (150 min) 1 positive memory in practice phase 8 positive memories in training phase	PMET group improved memory specificity and perceived ability to “relive” positive memories.
Techniques focued on specific therapeutic changes
Competitive Memory Training (COMET)	COMET is a manualised intervention that is applied progressively to address low self-esteem. COMET is conducted in groups of 6–8 individuals over eight weekly sessions of 1.5 h. The final objective of the technique is to associate the cues that provoked self-degrading cognitions with thoughts about a new positive self-image.	Korrelboom et al. (2008)	Within group design OCD (n = 17) Pre-post	Group modality. 7 sessions (45 min) Once a week No report of number of positives memories.	COMET reduced both obsessive-compulsive symptoms and co-occurring depressive and anxiety symptoms.
		Korrelboom et al. (2009b)	Between group design (COMET + TAU and TAU) Eating Disorders (n = 52) Pre-post	Group modality. 8 sessions (90 min) Once a week No report of number of positives memories.	Differential effects in favour of COMET + TAU were found for 2 indexes of self-esteem and for 1 index of depressive mood.
		Korrelboom et al. (2009a)	Within group design Outpatients with low self-esteem (n = 31) Pre-post	Group modality. 8 sessions (90 min) Once a week No report of number of positives memories.	COMET was effective in reducing both low self-esteem and co-occurring depressive symptoms while enhancing autonomy and optimism.
		Ekkers et al. (2011)	Between group design (COMET + TAU and TAU) Personality disorders (n = 91) Pre, post, and 7–10 weeks follow-up (n = 30)	Group modality. 7 sessions (120 min) Once a week No report of number of positives memories.	Significant interaction effects (Treatment x Time) in favour of COMET were found for self-esteem and depression.
		Ekkers et al. (2011)	Between group design (COMET + TAU and TAU) Depression (n=93) Pre-post	Group modality. 7 sessions (90 min) Once a week No report of number of positives memories.	COMET + TAU showed significant improvement in depression and rumination.
		Korrelboom et al. (2012)	Between group design (COMET + TAU and TAU) Depression (n=61) Pre-post and 3/6-month follow-up (n = 51/53)	Group modality. 8 sessions (120 min) Once a week No report of number of positives memories.	COMET + TAU showed significant improvement (large effect sizes) on self-esteem, depression, and depressive rumination. Results remained stable at follow-up.
		van der Gaag et al. (2012)	Between group design (COMET + TAU and TAU) Schizophrenia (n=77) Pre-post	Group modality. 7 sessions Once a week No report of number of positives memories.	COMET group improved on depression but there were no significant effects on auditory hallucinations.
		Korrelboom et al. (2014)	Between group design (COMET and Applied Relaxation) Panic disorder (n=143) Pre-post	Group modality. 7 sessions (90 min) Once a week No report of number of positives memories.	There were improved panic and phobic symptoms in both groups
		Schneider et al. (2015)	Between group design (COMET and control group -waiting list) OCD (n = 65) Pre, post and 4-week follow-up (n = 65)	Individual modality. 8 sessions Self-help modality No report of number of positives memories.	Self-esteem was higher at post-treatment and follow-up in the COMET group. There was no evidence for a greater decline of OCD symptoms or depression with COMET.
		Staring et al. (2016)	Between group design (COMET + EMDR and EMDR + COMET) Anxiety (n=47) Pre, between treatments and post.	Individual modality. 6 sessions No report of number of positives memories.	COMET showed more improvements in self-esteem than EMDR. When EMDR was given first, subsequent effects of COMET were significantly reduced in comparison to COMET as the first intervention.
		van Vreeswijk et al. (2020)	Between group design (TAU + COMET and TAU + SMBCT) Personality Disorders (n=58) Pre-post and 1 week follow-up	Group modality 8 sessions No report of number of positives memories.	Time effects were found for both treatments on elements such as improved self-esteem and decreased psychological distress, but neither was more effective than the other. Around 23% showed deterioration after treatment.
		Farahimanesh et al. (2020) & Farahimanesh et al. (2021)	Between group design (COMET and MEST) Cancer patients with PTSD (n=60) Pre-post and 3 months follow-up	Individual modality 7 sessions (COMET) 6 sessions (MEST) No report of number of positives memories.	Results indicated significant alleviation in autobiographical memory bias and fewer PTSD/ depression symptoms in COMET vs. MEST groups at post-training and 3-month follow-up.
Positive Memory Training (PoMeT) protocol	PoMeT is an adaptation of the COMET programme designed to improve access to positive self-representations in patients with schizophrenia.	Steel et al. (2015)	Protocol presentation	Individual modality. 8–10 sessions (60 min) 3 months No report of number of positives memories.	____
		Steel et al. (2020)	Between group design (PoMeT vs. TAU). Schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder with depression (n = 100). Pre-post and 3-week (n = 96) and 6-week follow-up (n = 95)	Individual modality. 8–10 sessions (60 min) 3 months No report of number of positives memories.	Compared to TAU group, PoMeT group showed (moderate) significant treatment effects on depression at 3 months. Although gains were maintained in the PoMeT group, effects diminished over time and were not significant at 3/6-month follow-ups.
Mood-Regulation focused Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (MR-CBT)	MR-CBT aims to achieve emotional regulation through counter-conditioning techniques. Basic sequence consists of reciprocal inhibition, which starts by establishing positive affect, before proceeding to process and activate negative affect and finally generating a positive future-oriented affect.	Högberg and Hällström (2018)	Between group design (MR-CBT vs. TAU) Depression (n = 27 adolescents) Pre-post	Individual modality. 12 sessions as average 8 months as average No report of number of positives memories.	There were significant improvement in depression and well-being in both groups (no differences between groups). There was reduction in frequency of suicidal events in the MR-CBT group.
Positive Visual Reframing (PVR)	PVR is a functional, emotional regulation technique based on drawing.	Ruppert and Eiroa-Orosa (2018)	Between group design (PVR vs. control group) Community (n = 62) Pre-post and 2-week follow-up (n = 54)	Individual modality. 1 session 1 positive memory	There were significant differences between groups in positive affect and regulation of negative affect. PVR was most effective. At 2-week follow-up, improvements were identified in both conditions.

EMDR: Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing; OCD: Obsessive Compulsive Disorder; PSC: Psychoeducation and Supportive Counselling; PTSD: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder; SMBCT: Schema Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy; TAU: Treatment-As-Usual

Figure 1. Outlined procedure for the scoping review.

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