Multispecies livelihoods: a posthumanist approach to wildlife ecotourism that promotes animal ethics

Figures & data

Figure 1. Multispecies Livelihoods Framework.

Table 1. Overview of data collection.

Data collection method

Information collected

Semi-structured interviews with wildlife ecotourism operators & wildlife researchers in protected areas Costa Rica (n = 9) Scotland (n = 3) Italy (n = 3) U.S. (n = 26) Participant observation Five Wolf Sanctuaries in U.S. Yellowstone National Park Secondary data Archived internal documents External research papers

Daily management and operations Role of tourists (guest vs. volunteer) Challenges organizations face Local cultural and environmental contexts Sources of local wildlife-human conflict Local perceptions of wildlife Effects of wildlife ecotourism on local economies Organizational approaches to educational outreach Organizational relations with local communities Approach to conservation Significance of governance in conservation

Table 2. Overview of Wildlife Ecotourism Organizations.

Country	Type of Organization	Mission	Type of Tourism
Italy	Volunteer Association	Save the Marsican brown bear from extinction	Volunteer
Costa Rica	Two Wildlife Sanctuaries	Rescue, shelter, and rehabilitate native wildlife	Volunteer Sanctuary Tours
	Conservation Organization	Conserve wildlife, engage the community, and preserve the rivers in the Osa Peninsula	Volunteer
U.S.	Wolf sanctuaries (5)	Educate local communities & tourists about wolves	Educational Programming
	Conservation Organization and Charity	Designate and manage protected areas, provide sustainable livelihoods to locals, and facilitate research across Latin America	Sanctuary Tours Volunteer
	Yellowstone National Park	Ecotour operators and wolf researchers	Ecotourism, Protected Area
Scotland	Conservation Organization and Charity	Revegetate and protect native forests and landscapes	Volunteer
	Government body	Maintain National Park	Recreation Wildlife-watching Historical tours

Table 3. Overview of Four Key Themes and Related Sub-themes.

Key Themes
Wildlife Perceptions Positive Local Perceptions of Wildlife	Biodiversity Conservation Education & Animal Welfare	Livelihoods Wildlife Ecotourism & Sustainable Development	Governmental Policies
Related Sub-themes
Younger age groups tended to have more positive perceptions of wildlife compared to older ones Urban communities tended to have more positive perceptions of wildlife compared to rural groups Educated communities tended to hold more positive perceptions of wildlife compared to less educated communities Wildlife ecotourism initiatives enhanced positive wildlife perspectives	Sanctuary models emphasized biodiversity conservation and engaged in educational outreach Excursion models emphasized habitat restoration and engaged in educational outreach Conservation education reinforced strategies for biodiversity and multispecies welfare	The presence of wildlife ecotourists enhanced human livelihoods Conservation networks were critical in strengthening multispecies livelihoods Excursion and sanctuary models actively promoted welfare of nonhuman animals Wildlife ecotourism initiatives at community levels reinforced positive perceptions.	Perceptions of governance were context-specific and geopolitically unique Government mechanisms for coexistence included financial incentives, wildlife transportation assistance, and legal enforcement for conservation protection Governmental agencies were driven to direct and support constructive collaboration