Climate and carbon risk of tourism in Europe

Figures & data

Figure 1. Total Contribution of Tourism to GDPs and Employment in Europe in 2019.

Data source: WTTC, 2021 (detailed data see Table A1 in the Appendix)

Table 1. Description of Klein et al. (2017) four generations of adaptation research and examples of reviewed papers.

Klein et al. (2017) framework	Description	Examples in the reviewed literature
First generation (103 papers, 33%)	Descriptive questions related to the potential impacts of climate change, their consequences for the population and the potential costs (or benefits) of such changes.	Studies investigating the evolution of climate conditions and their potential influence on tourism, destinations or activities (Mourey & Ravanel, 2017; Demiroglu et al., 2018; Nastos & Matzarakis, 2019)
Second generation (151 papers, 48%)	Descriptive questions about the social factors that influence vulnerability to climate change and normative questions aiming to evaluate and build on successful adaptation and to find a balance between adaptation and mitigation.	Studies aiming at identifying the adaptive capacity of certain destinations (Dannevig et al., 2021; Rice et al., 2022), the adaptive behavior of the supply side (Spandre et al., 2019a; Salim et al., 2021a) and the perception and adaptive behavior of the demand side (Steiger et al., 2020; Leon et al., 2021).
Third generation (37 papers, 12 %)	Policy and finance questions are introduced.	Studies seeking to identify which policy and institutional tools are needed to support adaptation efforts development (Rech et al., 2019; Welling & Abegg, 2021).
Fourth generation (23 papers, 7%)	Questions related to the technical knowledge that is needed to implement adaptation; lessons that can be learned from maladaptation and failure.	Acceptability of the adaptation measures (Rey-Valette et al., 2019), barriers to adaptation (Matasci et al., 2014) or the reasons for the success of adaptation strategies (Mourey et al., 2020).

Figure 2. Research coverage on climate and carbon risks of tourism in Europe.

For detailed data, see Table A1 in the Appendix

Table A1. Contribution of tourism to GDP and number of reviewed papers.

Country	Tourism in % GDP (2019)*	Papers reviewed
		Climate risk	Carbon risk
Albania	20.5	11	2
Andorra	n.a.	15	1
Armenia	12.9	3	2
Austria	11	51	16
Azerbaijan	7.7	3	2
Belarus	6.1	7	4
Belgium	5.6	17	12
Bosnia and Herzegovina	9.8	11	2
Bulgaria	10.7	18	10
Croatia	24.3	21	9
Cyprus	13.4	18	13
Czechia	6.2	13	12
Denmark	6.4	12	12
Estonia	11.8	16	11
Finland	7.8	31	14
France	8.5	60	23
Georgia	26.8	6	2
Germany	9.8	47	16
Greece	20.3	38	17
Hungary	7.9	21	11
Iceland	21.8	9	3
Ireland	4.2	16	10
Italy	13.1	48	21
Kazakhstan	5.2	3	2
Kosovo	n.a.	8	1
Latvia	7.7	14	14
Liechtenstein	n.a.	8	1
Lithuania	6	14	11
Luxembourg	8.9	11	11
Malta	15.9	17	11
Moldova	6.6	7	2
Monaco	n.a.	7	1
Montenegro	30.9	9	2
Netherlands	10.8	16	17
North Macedonia	6.6	9	2
Northern Cyprus	n.a.	5	0
Norway	7.9	24	13
Poland	4.7	17	14
Portugal	17.1	27	15
Republic of Serbia	5.9	14	3
Romania	6.1	20	12
Russia	4.9	8	4
San Marino	n.a.	7	1
Slovakia	6.4	15	11
Slovenia	10.6	21	12
Spain	14.1	68	28
Sweden	7.3	23	17
Switzerland	7.4	41	11
Turkey	11	19	11
Ukraine	6.3	9	0
United Kingdom	10.1	22	32
Vatican	n.a.	7	1

*WTTC, 2021.

WTTC. (2021). Economic impact reports. https://wttc.org/Research/Economic-Impact.

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