Formative assessment, growth mindset, and achievement: examining their relations in the East and the West

Figures & data

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and internal consistency

Variables		Over-all Sample		English Speaking		Confucian
	$\alpha$	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	Scale	Items
Reading Achievement		512.71 (1.77)	103.70 (0.86)	505.18 (2.83)	106.74 (1.24)	523.96 (1.49)	97.88 (.93)
Growth Mindset		2.81 (.01)	.91 (0)	2.90 (.01)	.93 (.01)	2.68 (.01)	.86 (0)	1 – Strongly Agree; 4 – Strong Disagree	‘Your intelligence is something about you that you can’t change very much.’
Sharing Learning Progressions	.80	3.02 (.01)	.73 (0)	2.97 (.01)	.73 (.01)	3.13 (.01)	.72 (0)	1 – Every Lesson; 4 – Never or Hardly Ever	^ST102Q01TA The teacher sets clear goals for our learning. ^ST102Q02TA The teacher asks questions to check whether we have understood what was taught. ^ST102Q03TA At the beginning of a lesson, the teacher presents a short summary of the previous lesson. ^ST102Q04TA The teacher tells us what we have to learn.
Providing Feedback	.90	2.50 (.01)	.89 (0)	2.60 (.01)	.87 (.01)	2.33 (.01)	.89 (0)	1 – Never or almost never; 4 – Every lesson or almost every lesson	^ST104Q02NA The teacher gives me feedback on my strengths in this subject. ^ST104Q03NA The teacher tells me in which areas I can still improve. ^ST104Q04NA The teacher tells me how I can improve my performance.
Instructional Adjustments	.79	2.64 (.01)	079 (0)	2.62 (.01)	.78 (0)	2.67 (.01)	.80 (0)	1 – Never or almost never; 4 – Every lesson or almost every lesson	^ST212Q01HA The teacher adapts the lesson to my class’s needs and knowledge. ^ST212Q02HA The teacher provides individual help when a student has difficulties understanding a topic or task. ^ST212Q03HA The teacher changes the structure of the lesson on a topic that most students find difficult to understand.

Note: Based on samples from English-speaking and Confucian countries/economies (n = 109,204). Values in parentheses are standard errors.

Source: Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2018.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework of association between formative assessment practices and reading achievement as mediated by growth mindset

Table 2. Bivariate correlations in the English-speaking sample (n = 44,679)

	Reading Achievement	Growth Mindset	Sharing Learning Progressions	Providing Feedback	Instructional Adjustments	ESCS	Class Size	Sex
Growth Mindset	0.24*** (0.01)
Sharing Learning Progressions	−0.07*** (0.01)	0.02*** (0.01)
Providing Feedback	0.05*** (0.01)	0.05*** (0.01)	0.40*** (0.01)
Instructional Adjustments	0.11*** (0.01)	0.06*** (0.01)	0.43*** (.01)	0.55*** (0.01)
ESCS	0.34*** (.02)	0.12*** (0.01)	−0.02*** (.01)	0.07*** (0.01)	0.10*** (0.01)
Class Size	0.03*** (0.02)	0.02** (0.01)	−0.03*** (.02)	−0.02*** (0.02)	−0.04*** (0.02)	−0.03*** (0.02)
Sex	0.11*** (0.01)	0.03*** (0.01)	−0.05*** (0.01)	−0.06*** (0.01)	0.00 (0.01)	−0.02*** (0.01)	0.00 (.01)
Repeated a Grade	−0.27*** (0.01)	−0.10*** (0.01)	0.05*** (.01)	−0.01** (0.01)	−0.03*** (0.01)	−0.18*** (0.01)	−0.01* (0.02)	−0.04*** (0.01)

Source: Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2018.

Note: Standard error estimates are enclosed in parentheses. *** p < .001; ** p < .01; *p < .05

Table 3. Bivariate correlations in the Confucian sample (n = 41,872)

	Reading Achievement	Growth Mindset	Sharing Learning Progressions	Providing Feedback	Instructional Adjustments	ESCS	Class Size	Female
Growth Mindset	.03*** (.01)
Sharing of Learning Targets and Progress	.06*** (.01)	.08*** (.01)
Providing Feedback	.03*** (.01)	.07*** (.01)	.42*** (.01)
Instructional Adjustments	.10*** (.01)	.06*** (.01)	.45*** (.01)	.58*** (.01)
ESCS	.21*** (.01)	.01 (.01)	0 (.01)	.01* (.01)	.01* (.01)
Class Size	.22*** (.03)	.01** (.01)	.01** (.02)	−.02*** (.02)	−.02*** (.02)	−.15*** (.02)
Female	.09*** (.01)	−.04*** (.01)	−.02*** (.01)	−.11*** (.01)	0 (.01)	.02*** (.01)	0 (.01)
Repeated a Grade	−.14*** (.01)	.02* (.01)	−.01 (.01)	0 (.01)	−.02*** (.01)	−.16*** (.01)	.05*** (.02)	−.04*** (.01)

Source: Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2018.

Note: Standard error estimates are enclosed in parentheses. *** p < .001; ** p < .01; *p < .05

Figure 2. Structural equation model of association between dimensions of formative assessment and reading achievement via growth mindset among English-speaking countries/economies. For clarity of presentation, error terms and estimates of covariances were not shown.***p < .001 *p < .05

Figure 3. Structural equation model of association between dimensions of formative assessment and reading achievement via growth mindset among Confucian countries/economies. For clarity of presentation, error terms and estimates of covariances were not shown. ***p < .001 *p < .05

Table A. Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations by countries/economies

CNT	n	Reading Achievement		Sharing Learning Progressions (SLP)		Providing Feedback (PFB)		Instructional Adjustments (IAD)		Growth Mindset		Formative Assessment Correlation with Reading Achievement			Formative Assessment’s Correlation with Growth Mindset			Growth Mindset’s correlation with Reading Achievement
		Mean	SD	Mean	SD	Mean	SD	Mean	SD	Mean	SD	SLP	PFB	IAD	SLP	PFB	IAD
A. English-speaking Countries/economies
Australia	14,273	502.63 (1.63)	108.66 (0.9)	2.89 (0.01)	0.76 (0.01)	2.61 (0.01)	0.84 (0)	2.7 (0.01)	0.78 (0)	2.87 (0.01)	0.87 (0)	−.06*** (.01)	.05*** (.01)	.11*** (0.01)	.02 (0.01)	.05*** (0.01)	.06*** (0.01)	.23*** (0.01)
United Kingdom	13,818	503.93 (2.58)	100.21 (1.27)	2.91 (0.01)	0.73 (0.01)	2.74 (0.02)	0.81 (0.01)	2.71 (0.01)	0.79 (0.01)	2.9 (0.01)	0.89 (0.01)	−.07*** (.02)	.05*** (.02)	.13*** (0.02)	.08*** (0.01)	.10*** (0.01)	.12*** (0.01)	.18*** (0.01)
Ireland	5577	518.08 (2.24)	90.7 (1.04)	2.73 (0.02)	0.74 (0.01)	2.56 (0.02)	0.82 (0.01)	2.52 (0.01)	0.75 (0.01)	2.97 (0.01)	0.83 (0.01)	−.10*** (.02)	.04** (0.02)	.09*** (0.02)	.09*** (0.01)	.08*** (0.01)	.11*** (0.01)	.17*** (0.02)
New Zealand	6173	505.73 (2.04)	106.3 (1.34)	2.86 (0.01)	0.73 (0.01)	2.72 (0.01)	0.81 (0.01)	2.72 (0.01)	0.77 (0.01)	2.84 (0.01)	0.88 (0.01)	−.13*** (.02)	.00 (0.02)	.12*** (0.01)	−.01 (0.01)	.04** (0.01)	.08*** (0.01)	.31*** (0.01)
United States	4838	505.35 (3.57)	107.89 (1.57)	2.99 (0.01)	0.72 (0.01)	2.57 (0.02)	0.88 (0.01)	2.59 (0.01)	0.78 (0.01)	2.9 (0.01)	0.94 (0.01)	−.06*** (0.02)	.05** (0.02)	.10*** (0.02)	.01 (0.02)	.04* (0.02)	.05*** (0.02)	.26*** (0.02)
B. Confucian Countries/economies
Hong Kong SAR	6037	524.28 (2.73)	99.48 (1.49)	2.85 (0.02)	0.76 (0.01)	2.39 (0.02)	0.76 (0.01)	2.55 (0.01)	0.75 (0.01)	2.39 (0.02)	0.85 (0.01)	.02 (0.02)	.02 (0.02)	.08*** (0.02)	.07*** (0.01)	.07*** (0.02)	.06*** (.01)	−0.03 (.02)
Japan	6109	503.86 (2.67)	97.12 (1.68)	3.03 (0.02)	0.71 (0.01)	2.05 (0.02)	0.81 (0.01)	2.48 (0.02)	0.75 (0.01)	2.76 (0.01)	0.84 (0.01)	.05*** (0.02)	−.03* (0.02)	.02 (0.01)	.07*** (.01)	.07*** (0.01)	.06*** (0.01)	.14*** (0.02)
Korea	6650	514.05 (2.94)	102 (1.65)	3.21 (0.01)	0.7 (0.01)	2.46 (0.02)	0.98 (0.01)	2.87 (0.02)	0.8 (0.01)	2.59 (0.01)	0.86 (0.01)	.10*** (0.02)	−.04*** (0.02)	.10*** (0.02)	.10*** (0.01)	.10*** (0.01)	.12*** (0.01)	.08*** (0.01)
Macau SAR	3775	525.12 (1.23)	92.11 (1.07)	2.91 (0.01)	0.68 (0.01)	2.16 (0.01)	0.71 (0.01)	2.36 (0.01)	0.7 (0.01)	2.48 (0.01)	0.88 (0.01)	.04* (0.02)	−.03* (0.02)	0.01 (0.02)	.10*** (0.02)	.09*** (0.02)	.09*** (0.02)	.07*** (0.01)
Mainland China	12,058	555.24 (2.75)	87.23 (1.72)	3.24 (0.02)	0.69 (0.01)	2.52 (0.02)	0.88 (0.01)	2.82 (0.02)	0.81 (0.01)	2.65 (0.01)	0.89 (0.01)	−.02 (0.02)	.01* (0.01)	.09*** (0.02)	.10*** (0.01)	.10*** (0.02)	.07*** (0.02)	−.11*** (0.02)
Chinese Taipei	7243	502.6 (2.84)	101.73 (1.46)	2.95 (0.01)	0.73 (0.01)	2.58 (0.01)	0.82 (0.01)	2.62 (0.01)	0.78 (0.01)	2.67 (0.01)	0.85 (0.01)	.01 (0.01)	.07*** (0.01)	.05*** (0.01)	.08*** (0.01)	.09*** (0.01)	.07*** (0.01)	.07*** (0.01)

Note: Standard Errors are enclosed in parentheses. *** p < .001; **p < .01; *p < .05; B-S-Z-J: Beijing-Shanghai-Zhejiang-Jiangsu