A cross-species perspective: β-carotene supplementation effects in poultry, swine, and cattle – a review

Figures & data

Table 1. Effects of β-carotene supplementation on immune parameters.

Parameters	Poultry Studies	Swine Studies	Cattle Studies
Antibody Production	✓ Increase in serum antibody titres after challenge with Newcastle disease virus at 0.04% of β-carotene per kg of feed (Reid-McWhinney 1991) ✓ No change in serum IgM antibodies compared to vitamin A and E supplementation after a challenge at 50 mg of β-carotene per kg of feed (Tengerdy et al. 1990) ✓ Elevation in antibody titres following Newcastle disease virus vaccination at 10 mg of β-carotene per kg of feed (Karadas et al. 2016) ✓ Enhanced serum secretory sIgA, jejunal mucosal sIgA, and IgA concentrations at 60 mg of β-carotene per kg of feed (Hui et al. 2020)	✓ Enhanced serum IgA antibody response at 80 mg of β-carotene per kg of feed (Lang et al. 2020)	✓ Increased colostral immunoglobulin concentration at 500 mg β-carotene /animal/day (Ishida et al. 2018) ✓ No antibody response to live bovine Respiratory Syncytial virus vaccination at 20 mg β-carotene/animal/d (Otomaru et al. 2018)
Cytokine Profiles	–	✓ Elevated serum IL-10 levels at 80 mg of β-carotene per kg of feed (Lang et al. 2020) ✓ Reduced jejunal IL-5 and MLN IL-15 expression at 18 mg of β-carotene per kg of feed (Lo Verso et al. 2020)	–
Immune Competence (others)	✓ Improved function of lymphocytes after Newcastle disease virus vaccination at 0.04% of dietary β-carotene (Haq et al. 1996) ✓ Improved phytohaemoagglutinin reaction at 22 mg of β-carotene per kg of feed (Cucco et al. 2006) ✓ Increases in the levels of Serum Hepatocyte Growth Factor and leptin at 120 and 240 mg of β-carotene per kg of feed (Wang et al. 2023) ✓ Enhanced CC chemokine receptor-9 and polymeric immunoglobulin receptor in the ileal tissue as well as and pIgR in the jejunal tissue; improvement in mRNA expression of mucin-2, zonula occludens-1 and 2, and occludins in the ileal tissues at 60 mg of β-carotene per kg of feed (Hui et al. 2020)	✓ Increased in blood percentage of CD3^−CD16^+ leukocytes at 18 mg of β-carotene per kg of feed (Lo Verso et al. 2020) ✓ Higher phytohemagglutinin- and pokeweed mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation via injection with 40 mg of β-carotene (Hoskinson et al. 1992)	✓ Higher blood lymphocyte proliferation and enhanced phagocytic activity of blood neutrophils in response to specific mitogens at 300 mg or 600 mg of β-carotene/animal/day (Michal et al. 1994) ✓ Augmented intracellular bactericidal activity within phagocytes at 10^−8 M of β-carotene (Daniel et al. 1990) ✓ Improved phagocytic and bacterial killing ability of neutrophils at 400 mg of β-carotene/animal/day (Tjoelker et al. 1988) ✓ A stimulating activity on the blastogenesis of bovine lymphocytes and bolstering the bactericidal capacity of bovine blood neutrophils (Chew 1996) ✓ Higher peripheral blood leukocyte population at 20 mg β-carotene/animal/d (Otomaru et al. 2018) ✓ A stabilizing effect on neutrophil and lymphocyte function at 400 mg of β-carotene/animal/day (Tjoelker et al. 1990) ✓ Stimulatory effects on immune cell populations (Sordillo and Scott 1994)

Figure 1. Structural formula for β-carotene.

Table 2. Impact of β-carotene supplementation on reproductive outcomes.

Reproductive Outcomes	Poultry Studies	Swine Studies	Cattle Studies
Pregnancy, Conception and Fertility Rates	✓ No effect on fertility at 1.5, 6.75 or 15 mg of β-carotene per kg of feed (Damron et al. 1984)	✓ Variable effects on fertility (Sternder et al. 1999; Pasquariello et al. 2022)	✓ Increase in pregnancy rate at 400 mg β-carotene /animal/day (Arechiga et al. 1998) ✓ Higher pregnancy rate at 425 mg β-carotene /animal/day (de Ondarza et al. 2009) ✓ Higher conception rates at 400 mg β-carotene /animal/day (Lee et al. 2021) ✓ Higher conception rate at 200 mg β-carotene /animal/day (Trojacanec et al. 2012) ✓ No effect on fertility at 400 mg β-carotene /animal/day (Akordor et al. 1986) ✓ Higher pregnancy rate and insemination index i.m. injection of 0.4 mg β-carotene per kg BW (Ay et al. 2012b) ✓ Higher pregnancy rate at 400 mg β-carotene /animal/day (Khemarach et al. 2021) ✓ Higher conception rate at 500 mg β-carotene /animal/day (Bhatnagar et al. 2020) ✓ Higher conception rate at 500 mg (dry period) and 750 mg (lactation) of β-carotene/animal/day (Ascarelli et al. 1985) ✓ Higher conception rate (Hurley and Doane 1989)
Litter Sizes and Piglet Survivability	n/a	✓ Increased total pigs born and improved litter weights via injection with 32.6 or 65.2 mg of β-carotene/head/day (Brief and Chew 1985) ✓ Improved litter size at birth via i.m. injection of 50, 100, or 200 mg of β-carotene/animal/day (Coffey and Britt 1989) ✓ Increased number of total pigs born alive via i.m. injection of 50, 100, or 200 mg of β-carotene/animal/day (Coffey and Britt 1989 ✓ Higher number of piglets born alive at 400 mg of dietary β-carotene (Kostoglou et al. 2000) ✓ No effect via injection with 200 mg of β-carotene/head/day (Tokach et al. 1994; Stender et al. 1999) ✓ Increase of the total number of piglets born per litter via injection with 200 mg of β-carotene/head/day (Krammer and Aurich 2010)	n/a
Embryo Survival and Quality	✓ No data available	✓ Decreased embryonic mortality via injection with 32.6 or 65.2 mg of β-carotene/head/day (Brief and Chew 1985) ✓ Reduced embryonic mortality at 100 mg of dietary β-carotene/animal/day (Schweigert et al. 2002)	✓ Potential improvements at 500 mg (dry period) and 750 mg (lactation) of β-carotene/animal/day (Ascarelli et al. 1985) ✓ Improved quality of embryos via injection with 800 or 1200 mg of β-carotene/head/day (Sales et al. 2008)
Other Reproductive Traits	✓ No effect on hatchability and egg production 1.5, 6.75 or 15 mg of β-carotene per kg of feed (Damron et al. 1984)	✓ Heightened levels of uterine-specific proteins via i.m. injection of 16.4 mg of β-carotene/animal/day (Chew et al. 1982) ✓ Improved production of progesterone in dispersed luteal cells at 1×10^−7 M of β-carotene (Talavera and Chew 1986) ✓ Decrease in the follicular phase (nymphomania) and enhancement of the luteolysis processes at 30 or 90 mg of dietary β-carotene (Yuan et al. 2020)	✓ Fewer services per conception and shorter intervals between parturitionand conception via injection with 300 mg of β-carotene/head/day (Rakes et al. 1985) ✓ Increase in follicular size as well as luteal tissue growth rate at 200 mg β-carotene /animal/day (Trojacanec et al. 2012) ✓ Increased expression of genes implicated in both the function of cellular gonadotropes and the control of gonadotropin-releasing hormone activity (Haliloglu et al. 2002) ✓ No effect on ovulation, first observed estrus, or conception at 300 mg of dietary β-carotene (Wang et al. 1988) ✓ Higher number of ovulatory cows (Kawashima et al. 2009) ✓ Higher luteal size and luteal blood flow at 200 mg of dietary β-carotene (Ay et al. 2012a) ✓ Higher luteal activity via oral administration of 2,000 mg of β-carotene per animal and day (Kawashima et al. 2010) ✓ Decreased service period (Gossen and Hoedemaker 2005) ✓ Improved luteal steroidogenesis at 0.1 micromol/l of β-carotene (Arikan and Rodway 2000) ✓ No effect on ovarian activity, progesterone production, cervix and uterine horn diameters via oral administration of 1 g of β-carotene per animal and day (Kaewlamun et al. 2011) ✓ Shorter calving to the first oestrus and calving to conception intervals (Akar and Gazioglu 2006) ✓ A lower incidence of retained placenta via dietary supplementation of 1.2 g of β-carotene per animal and day (Oliveira et al. 2015)

Figure 2. Optimizing bioavailability and stability via microencapsulation of synthetic β-carotene.

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