Evaluating current ethical values of OpenStreetMap using value sensitive design

Figures & data

Figure 1. VSD lifecycle methodology.

Figure 2. Relevant ethical values.

Table 1. The three stakeholder groups and their affinity to the different relevant values.

	Values	Complete data	Precise data	Data & information	Personal Information Security	Copyrights & ownership	Person’s freedom	Person’s wellbeing	Usable and available for all	Reliability
Contributors	Citizens	X	X	V	V			XV	X	X
	Commercial mapping companies		X			V		X	X	X
	Government mapping authorities		X			V		X	X	X
Users/Customers	Citizens	V	V	X	V		V	V	V	V
	Commercial mapping companies	V	V		X	V	X	V	V	V
	Academic researchers	V	V	X	X	V		V	V	X
Others	Citizens				V		V	V
	Engineers/employees	X	X				V	V	V	X

Table 2. Ethical aspects in the context of OSM: current state and recommendations.

Initial stage
Currently: OSM pays attention to defining the data sources for the system and to preventing the use of personal information by another entity by preventing the import of copyrighted data. OSM and HOT explicitly define their purposes of collecting and assimilating data. In its privacy policy, OSM defines the scope of stored and processed data, the reasons for storing and processing it, and mechanisms that contributors can follow for reducing “privacy related issues”.	Recommendation: Revisiting the definition so it must be coherent that the system uses only information that is vital and directly related to any research or software that makes use of OSM data. Ascertaining users are aware that using data that is beyond the scope of the project impacts the participants’ privacy.
Planning stage
Currently: At present, projects are often developed without the knowledge of the participants, especially as acquiring data is very simple. Since OSM is freely accessible, it seems unrealistic to inform contributors of each conducted project or research that use their input, although they own the data according to OSM definition. In OSM, the different stakeholders are not involved in making policies and detecting values.	Recommendation: Contributors’ representatives should be involved in the planning stage. Those involved in the planning must identify, define, and relate to ethical, financial, cultural, legal, and environmental issues associated with the project while considering the preferences of stakeholders.
Production and execution stage
Currently: OSM has de rigueur guidance regarding data quality and reliability, while no such published guidance by HOT was found.	Recommendation: Projects should be in accordance to shared professional standards. Moreover, volunteered data must be trustworthy and reliable. Adopting trustworthiness models (e.g. D’Antonio, Fogliaroni, and Kauppinen (2014) and Fogliaroni, D’Antonio, and Clementini (2018) that are based on VGI edit history and versioning. Such mechanisms can be regularly adopted by OSM for ensuring data validity.

Table A1. Ethical value clauses cited from OSM’s codes of conduct, drafts, and suggested codes, categorized according to their topic.

No.	Ethical value clause
Topic:Mutual relationships between contributors
(1)	Respect: “We expect members of the OpenStreetMap community to be respectful when dealing with other contributors.”
(2)	Collaboration: “OSM members are encouraged to act transparently and when possible, involve all interested parties … document the work and inform others regularly of progress.”
(3)	Copyright and Licenses: “Please be conscious of license issues, and never add data in a way that violates other licenses or copyright”.
Topic:Data integrity
(4)	“Do not trace from outdated imagery … Align aerial imagery before tracing”
(5)	“Keep straight ways straight”
(6)	“An OSM element should represent a single on-the-ground feature once and only once”
(7)	“Inclusion of data (including data derived from photos) in OpenStreetMap does not imply that the original data provider endorses OpenStreetMap, provides any warranty, or accepts any liability”
Topic:Stakeholders’ interest, involvement, and consciousness
(8)	OSM explains (in its FAQ) for its volunteers the contribution they make to the community under the topic “Why are you making OpenStreetMap?” and presents the value of OSM by comparing it to other copyrighted platforms, such as Google Maps.
(9)	Mapping organizations grant permissions for freely using their openly-licensed data conforming to the limitations of the license.
(10)	“The map may also just be incorrect because, for example, you bought it a year ago and a path has been dug up in your local park since, or someone just made a mistake.”
Topic:Research
(11)	According to OSM FAQ, “Numerous universities worldwide are studying various aspects of OpenStreetMap or are using OSM data in their research”.
(12)	Privacy policies do state that anonymized data might be provided to a third party and published. The question is, are the contributors truly aware of that and accept it?
(13)	Data is anonymized before being offered to a third party. However, operational personnel of OSM can access such data. “Anonymized survey data, which may be useful to the Foundation in the future for comparison purposes, may be retained indefinitely in accordance with applicable data privacy laws”.
Topic: NGA as related in the OSM wiki page of contributors
(14)	very frequently, the contributing mapping agencies exempt themselves from any responsibility concerning the accuracy, currency, and completeness of the data presented by a third party such as OSM.
(15)	only limited NMA afford OSM with real-time updates or bus times. A bunch of contributors does not warrant the timeliness of data.
Topic:Commercial mapping business
(16)	Among their interests is accessing affordable data and using it for their applications. They can use the data of OSM freely (in contrast with Google Maps), without copyrights.
Topic:HOT code of conduct
(17)	“HOT is an international team dedicated to humanitarian action and community development through open mapping. We work together to provide map data which revolutionizes disaster management, reduces risks, and contributes to achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals.”
Topic:Third parties maintaining OSM
(18)	“Third party services providing content linked to via or third party JavaScript files utilized by OSM provided sites are not covered” by the privacy policy of OSM.
(19)	Operations Working Group (OWG) has its own policies (OSM wiki).

Table A2. Ethical values, expectations, and interests of the seven main groups of stakeholders.

Type of Stakeholder	Stakeholders’ Interests	Expectations from Stakeholders
Data Contributors
Citizens	The contributor is interested in providing spatial data to add to (society’s) well-being by upgrading existing mapping infrastructures and with the understanding that the more volunteers contribute, the greater the improvement will be. (y8,9) An additional motive is the aspiration to share one’s knowledge with others, based on mutual respect. (y1)	The contributor must be reliable and honest when submitting data; the data contributed must be up-to-date and precise. (y4,5,6) The contributor will not harm the privacy of other people when providing data (Mooney et al. 2017) (y3)
Local mapping agencies and surveyors (government)	The agency is interested in preserving its assets, i.e. mapping data (achieved through the investment of time and resources). (n9) The agency is not interested in offering its propriety data, as it is a source of knowledge and power for the agency, that comprises its self-identity over time. (n2)	The organization will consider the content and degree of detail of the data that it provides its customers with (Mooney et al. 2017). (n14) The organization will continuously update the information and will provide reliable and quality content. (n15)
Academic Researcher	Researchers who contribute data to open-source platforms are interested in enabling usage and availability to all, based on their desire for other researchers to act in an equivalent manner, making their data available if necessary. (y2) The researchers are interested in their personal advancement by publishing their research results, while promoting their contribution to the well-being of others (of society). (y11)	To receive explicit permission from the contributors to access their data. To ensure that the contributors are fully aware of the fact that they are participating in a research project. (n12) To not expose the identity of the research participants (volunteers) or any other personal data; maintaining privacy and anonymity (Mooney et al. 2017). (y13) To solely use the data for the intended research purpose. The data will only be kept for the period of the study and will then be deleted permanently. (n13) The information will not be shared with a third party who is not part of the research.
Commercial Mapping Businesses	The business is interested in preserving its assets, therefore, prefers not to expose data for which it may be able to receive payment in the future. (y8), (n9) The commercial company wishes to create trust among the users and market its activities. (n10)	To only accept tasks that the company can handle professionally and expertly (Brinkman et al. 2017). To only provide data that is correct/accurate/reliable/up-to-date. (n14)
Users/Customers
Citizens	To receive as reliable, precise, and comprehensive data as possible. To use OSM-maps for their wellbeing, and with a feeling of liberty and freedom. (y9) Receiving data without harming their privacy. Receiving up-to-date data in real-time. (y10)	Using the data while being aware of the purpose of the mapping infrastructure activity, and of the data contribution community, so as not to harm its activity. Using the data while being aware of preserving the privacy of the entities involved. (n12)
Commercial Mapping Businesses	The business is interested in expanding its existing database and continuously updating it to profit from the data. (y16)	Not using data in a way that could harm people or cause them to perjure themselves. Being professional and objective when providing consultancy based on the received data (Mooney et al. 2017). Approaching communication and computerized sources only with the company’s authorization (Brinkman et al. 2017).
All Other Stakeholders
Engineers and Professionals who Develop and Maintain OSM-based Systems	Companies that set up OSM systems are interested in promoting a vision that contributes to people’s wellbeing (otherwise volunteers will not cooperate). The company believes that the data needs to be usable and available to all, aspiring to provide others with greater liberty, while freeing them from being dependent on a commercial or government source. (y8)	Utilizing the existing resources most effectively. Willing to provide professional, honest, and independent assistance regarding social issues. (y17) Not approving products achieved through processes they were not involved in or supervised by them or products beyond their scope of expertise. Always using computers in a manner that ensures honoring and being considerate of other people (Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT) 2011).

Table A3. Commitments of HOT members.

Oblige to	Commitments according to each clause
HOT	1. Royalty, intellectual property 2. Promise-keeping & trustworthiness 3. Loyalty 4. Diligence, persistence 5. Freedom and liberty
Colleagues, partners, donors, and beneficiaries	1. Intimacy 2. Privacy, property, well-being, loyalty, law-abiding, integrity, freedom, and liberty loyalty 4. Commitment to excellence
Society	2. Fairness, respect for others, justice

D’-Antonio, F., P. Fogliaroni, and T. Kauppinen. 2014. “VGI Edit History Reveals Data Trustworthiness and User Reputation.‏” In Proceedings of the 17thAGILE international conference on geographic information science, 4–8. Wageningen, The Netherlands.

 Google Scholar

Fogliaroni, P., F. D’-Antonio, and E. Clementini. 2018. “Data Trustworthiness and User Reputation as Indicators of VGI Quality.” Geo-Spatial Information Science 21 (3): 213–233. doi:10.1080/10095020.2018.1496556.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Mooney, P., A.M. Olteanu-Raimond, G. Touya, N. Juul, S. Alvanides, and N. Kerle. 2017. “Considerations of Privacy, Ethics and Legal Issues in Volunteered Geographic Information.” In Mapping and the Citizen Sensor, edited by G. Foody, L. See, S. Fritz, P. Mooney, A.-M. Olteanu-Raimond, C. C. Fonte, V. Antoniou, 119–135. London, England: Ubiquity Press Ltd.

 Google Scholar

Brinkman, B., C. Flick, D. Gotterbarn, K. Miller, K. Vazansky, and M. J. Wolf. 2017. “Listening to Professional Voices: Draft 2 of the ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct.” Communications of the ACM 60 (5): 105–111‏. doi:10.1145/3072528.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT). 2011. “IT Ethical Code in India.” Accessed 27 April 2021. http://ethics.iit.edu/ecodes/node/3115.

 Google Scholar

Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data was created or analyzed in this study.