Spatial prediction of soil surface properties in an arid region using synthetic soil image and machine learning

Abstract

Evaluation of spatial variability and mapping of soil properties is critical for sustainable agricultural production in arid lands. The main objectives of the present study were to spatialize soil organic carbon (SOC), soil particle size distribution(clay, sand, and silt contents), and calcium carbonate equivalent (CCE) by integrating multisource environmental covariates, including digital elevation model (DEM) and remote sensing data by machine learning (Cubist, Cu and random forest, RF) in an arid region of Iran. Additionally, Synthetic Soil Images (SySI) were achieved from multi-temporal images of bare soil pixels based on Landsats 4, 5, 7, 8, and a DEM. Three hundred topsoil samples (0–30 cm depth) were collected based on the conditioned Latin hypercube sampling (cLHS) approach in Afzar district, Fars province, southern Iran. The models were calibrated and validated by the 10-fold cross-validation approach, and the performance was evaluated using root mean square error (RMSE), the ratio of the performance to interquartile distance (RPIQ), and coefficient of determination (R²). Also, the prediction accuracy was assessed by the relative RMSE (rRMSE). The performance of the best models based on the RPIQ index showed that the model for predicting clay (1.89) had a good prediction, for sand (1.64), SOC (1.55), and CCE (1.59) had a fair prediction, while the model for silt (1.13) performed poorly. We found that the Cu and RF models had the highest and lowest prediction accuracies for CCE (rRMSE = 14.31%) and SOC (rRMSE = 43.93%), respectively. We discovered that a combination of high-quality RS data (SySI) and variables derived from DEM were reasonably able to predict soil properties. We revealed a strong promise to enhance the accuracy of digital soil mapping, especially in regions with limited soil data. Moreover, the application of RS data can reduce the soil sampling cost and, accordingly, soil mapping.

Keywords:

• Spatial prediction
• environmental covariates
• synthetic soil image (SySI)
• Cubist
• random forest
• machine learning

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the Geotechnology in Soil Science Group, GEOCIS (http://esalqgeocis.wix.com/english) at the Soil Science Department at the University of São Paulo for providing excellent support services, and FAPESP n. 2014-2262-0.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

The authors also acknowledge the Iran National Science Foundation (INSF) financial support for project No: 98001941, which made the study possible. Mojtaba Zeraatpisheh’s postdoctoral program at Henan University, China, has been supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China, grant numbers 2017YFA0604302 and 2018YFA0606500.