ABSTRACT
This article explores how UK courts and tribunals could and do use empirical evidence to build the legitimacy of legal institutions. Drawing on case studies from negligence and discrimination law, it argues that the approach to empirical evidence in the UK courts is largely typified by ad hoc, unprincipled, and unpredictable engagement. Strategies for laying stronger foundations to bridge these apparent disconnections between the courts and society, and for promoting the effective use of empirical evidence in the courts, are explored.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
2 Gibson (Citation1989), p 470. In this context, legitimacy is defined as ‘the right to rule and the recognition by the ruled of that right’, and is generally thought to manifest in public compliance with the law: see Jackson et al (Citation2012), p 1051.
10 For Fallon, this constitutes ‘sociological legitimacy’, or the public acceptance of a court’s rulings: Fallon (Citation2005). This may be distinguished from legal legitimacy, which requires a clear statement of the reasons for a court’s decision; and moral legitimacy, which relates to moral justifiability. See further Wells (Citation2007).
46 Though, at the same time, ‘the record does not point clearly to complete incapacity’: Meares (Citation2002), p 855.
47 For example, by posing questions such as: has the study survived critical review? Does it adopt valid research methods? Are the findings generalisable? Does a body of research support it?: Walker and Monahan (Citation1987), pp 589–591.
67 See, for example, Odukwe v The Partners of Hoare Lea Consulting Engineers (UKEAT, Citation27 January Citation2012); Stanley v Rawlinson (Citation2011) EWCA Civ 405; Harooni v Rustins Ltd (Citation2011) EWHC 1632 (TCC); Tomlinson v Congleton Borough Council (Citation2004) UKHL 47, (2004) 1 AC 46; BHP Billiton Petroleum Ltd v Dalmine SpA (Citation2003) EWCA Civ 170, (2003) BLR 271 at (26) (Rix LJ).
68 BHP Billiton Petroleum Ltd v Dalmine SpA (Citation2003) EWCA Civ 170, (2003) BLR 271 at (26) (Rix LJ).
70 Harooni v Rustins Ltd (Citation2011) EWHC 1632 (TCC); Tomlinson v Congleton Borough Council (Citation2004) UKHL 47, (2004) 1 AC 46.
71 Tomlinson v Congleton Borough Council (Citation2004) UKHL 47, (2004) 1 AC 46.
72 Tomlinson v Congleton Borough Council (Citation2004) UKHL 47, (2004) 1 AC 46 at 89 (Lord Hutton).
74 BHP Billiton Petroleum Ltd v Dalmine SpA (Citation2003) EWCA Civ 170, (2003) BLR 271 at (26) (Rix LJ).
76 Seldon v Clarkson Wright & Jakes (Citation2009) 3 All ER 435.
77 Seldon v Clarkson Wright & Jakes (Citation2009) 3 All ER 435 at (73).
78 Seldon v Clarkson Wright & Jakes (Citation2014) ICR 1275.
79 Seldon v Clarkson Wright & Jakes (Citation2014) ICR 1275 at (32).
80 Seldon v Clarkson Wright & Jakes (Citation2009) 3 All ER 435 at (73).
84 Indeed, when the Seldon case was referred back to the Employment Tribunal, the employer chose not to proceed with a ‘dignity’ based argument, likely due to a lack of evidence.
87 The Equality Act Citation2010 allows indirect discrimination to be objectively justified as a proportionate means of achieving a legitimate aim; and, in relation to age, also allows for direct discrimination to be objectively justified as a proportionate means of achieving a legitimate aim.
88 Seldon v Clarkson Wright & Jakes (Citation2014) ICR 1275 at (32).
89 Engel v Transport and Environment Committee of London Councils (UKET, Citation26 April Citation2013) (Engel).
93 Lockwood v Department of Work and Pensions (Citation2014) EWCA Civ 1195; (2014) 1 All ER 250.
94 Lockwood v Department of Work and Pensions (Citation2014) EWCA Civ 1195; (2014) 1 All ER 250 at (54).
97 This reflects Kahan’s argument that social science evidence is given more credibility when it accords with our own cultural perceptions and beliefs: ‘We naturally impute credibility – including knowledge and shared interests – to putative experts whose cultural outlooks are congenial to our own. … [we are] drawn to beliefs that cohere with our cultural commitments’: Kahan (Citation2007), p 107.
98 MacCulloch v Imperial Chemical Industries plc (Citation2008) ICR 1334.
100 For discussion of the use of statistics in US tort cases, see Gastwirth (Citation1988b).
106 Sienkiewicz v Greif (UK) Ltd (Citation2011) UKSC 10, (2011) 2 AC 229 (Sienkiewicz).
107 Sienkiewicz (Citation2011) UKSC 10, (2011) 2 AC 229 at 261 (Lord Phillips).
109 For further detail, see Stapleton (Citation2012), p 225.
112 Sienkiewicz (Citation2011) UKSC 10, (2011) 2 AC 229 at 264 (Lord Phillips). For a critique, see McIvor (Citation2013).
113 Sienkiewicz (Citation2011) UKSC 10, (2011) 2 AC 229 at 264 (Lord Phillips). See also Sienkiewicz (Citation2011) UKSC 10, (2011) 2 AC 229 at 289–290 (Lady Hale), 295–296 (Lord Mance).
114 Sienkiewicz (Citation2011) UKSC 10, (2011) 2 AC 229 at 267 (Lord Phillips), 285 (Lord Rodger), 302 (Lord Dyson).
115 Sienkiewicz (Citation2011) UKSC 10, (2011) 2 AC 229 at 285 (Lord Rodger). Compare Sienkiewicz (Citation2011) UKSC 10, (2011) 2 AC 229 at 295–296 (Lord Mance), 303 (Lord Dyson).
116 Sienkiewicz (Citation2011) UKSC 10, (2011) 2 AC 229 at 287 (Lord Rodger).
117 Sienkiewicz (Citation2011) UKSC 10, (2011) 2 AC 229 at 287 (Lord Rodger). See also Sienkiewicz (Citation2011) UKSC 10, (2011) 2 AC 229 at 295–296 (Lord Mance), 299 (Lord Kerr), 302 (Lord Dyson).
118 Sienkiewicz (Citation2011) UKSC 10, (2011) 2 AC 229 at 267 (Lord Phillips), 295–296 (Lord Mance), 299 (Lord Kerr). See further Rosenberg (Citation1984), pp 856–858. In the Australian context, see Bitas (Citation2011).
119 Sienkiewicz (Citation2011) UKSC 10, (2011) 2 AC 229 at 288 (Lord Rodger).
120 Sienkiewicz (Citation2011) UKSC 10, (2011) 2 AC 229 at 299 (Lord Kerr).
121 Sienkiewicz (Citation2011) UKSC 10, (2011) 2 AC 229 at 290 (Lady Hale).
131 Gregg v Scott (Citation2005) UKHL 2, (2005) 2 AC 176 at 217 (Lord Phillips).
132 Gregg v Scott (Citation2005) UKHL 2, (2005) 2 AC 176 at 220–221 (Lord Phillips).
133 Gregg v Scott (Citation2005) UKHL 2, (2005) 2 AC 176 at 220–221 (Lord Phillips).
136 McIvor (Citation2013), p 582. While this would have been helpful for the House of Lords hearing, it does not helpfully assist the decision-maker at first instance, given the trial would have occurred years earlier.
142 Secretary of State for Trade and Industry v Rutherford (Citation2006) UKHL 19, (2006) 4 All ER 577 (Rutherford).
143 This case was adjudicated prior to age discrimination becoming generally unlawful in the UK.
144 Rutherford (Citation2006) UKHL 19, (2006) 4 All ER 577 at (27) (Lord Rodger of Earlsferry).
145 Rutherford (Citation2006) UKHL 19, (2006) 4 All ER 577 at (5) (Lord Nicholls of Birkenhead).
146 Rutherford (Citation2006) UKHL 19, (2006) 4 All ER 577 at (20) (Lord Scott of Foscote).
147 Rutherford (Citation2006) UKHL 19, (2006) 4 All ER 577 at (21) (Lord Scott of Foscote).
148 Rutherford (Citation2006) UKHL 19, (2006) 4 All ER 577 at (76) (Baroness Hale of Richmond).
149 Rutherford (Citation2006) UKHL 19, (2006) 4 All ER 577 at (57) (Lord Walker of Gestingthorpe). This can be compared with the pool used in the Employment Tribunal, which was only those under 65. This is fundamentally flawed: see Rutherford (Citation2006) UKHL 19, (2006) 4 All ER 577 at (60) (Lord Walker of Gestingthorpe).
150 Rutherford (Citation2006) UKHL 19, (2006) 4 All ER 577 at (38) (Lord Walker of Gestingthorpe).
151 Rutherford (Citation2006) UKHL 19, (2006) 4 All ER 577 at (62) (Lord Walker of Gestingthorpe).
152 Rutherford (Citation2006) UKHL 19, (2006) 4 All ER 577 at (68) (Lord Walker of Gestingthorpe).
153 Rutherford (Citation2006) UKHL 19, (2006) 4 All ER 577 at (65) (Lord Walker of Gestingthorpe).
157 Lockwood v Department of Work and Pensions (Citation2014) EWCA Civ 1195; (2014) 1 All ER 250 at (26).
158 Lockwood v Department of Work and Pensions (Citation2014) EWCA Civ 1195; (2014) 1 All ER 250 at (15), (50).
159 Lockwood v Department of Work and Pensions (Citation2014) EWCA Civ 1195; (2014) 1 All ER 250 at (15).
160 Lockwood v Department of Work and Pensions (Citation2014) EWCA Civ 1195; (2014) 1 All ER 250 at (15).
166 Vincent-Jones and Blandy (Citation2012), p 39. In contrast, according to Twining, ‘in my experience most lawyers are innumerate and most law students are terrified of figures’: Twining (Citation1992), p 14.
180 A similar idea has been proposed by the UK Law Commission in the context of criminal proceedings: Law Commission, Expert Evidence in Criminal Proceedings in England and Wales (Law Com No 325, Citation2011). That said, this still relies on judges having the ability to effectively scrutinise empirical evidence in pre-trial proceedings, or having the capacity to call on expert assistance to determine the validity of other expert evidence.
181 Law Commission, Expert Evidence in Criminal Proceedings in England and Wales (Law Com No 325, Citation2011), p 9.
196 For example, in Edwards v Jerman (Citation2004) CLY 2743, the judge took judicial notice of the fact that alcohol was likely to have made the claimant’s reactions less sharp.
200 British American Tobacco (Brands) Inc v KT&G Corp (Intellectual Property Office, Citation22 March Citation2016), (16).
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