ABSTRACT
This article examines political and media discourse surrounding a specific Australian example of hate crime law reform that was instituted principally to combat a wave of racial violence. The analysis suggests that the introduction of hate crime law can advance a liberal tolerance discourse that becomes interwoven with a ‘law and order’ agenda. This creates a troubling context whereby punitiveness may be promoted as a vehicle to deliver social justice goals and peaceful multiculturalism. By highlighting the contingency of the law's messages at the nexus of tolerance-intolerance, the article advances a critical analysis of punishment's educative project. Hate crime law is a particularly contested site that forces us to reconsider the multidimensional relationship between the expansion of criminalisation, state tolerance discourse and social marginalisation.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the anonymous reviewers at Griffith Law Review for the encouraging and helpful suggestions that have improved this article, and to Deakin University, where I completed this research and writing. Also, thanks to Bree Carlton, Cara Gledhill, Jude McCulloch and Liz Patterson for reading and commenting on a much earlier version of this writing.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Note on contributor
Emma K. Russell is a Lecturer in Crime, Justice and Legal Studies in the Department of Social Inquiry at La Trobe University, Melbourne.
Notes
1 Victoria, Parliamentary Debates, Legislative Assembly, 17 September 2009, p 3358.
2 When used in reference to the specific case study of Victoria, ‘hate crime law’ in this article refers to what is generally termed the ‘sentence aggravation model’, rather than the penalty enhancement or substantive offence models. See Mason (Citation2009a).
5 Victoria, Parliamentary Debates, Legislative Assembly, 17 September 2009, p 3358.
9 Edensor (Citation2002). For another example of the application of Wendy Brown's critique of tolerance discourse in a sub-national sphere, see Richardson and Monro (Citation2013).
11 I follow Fairclough’s (Citation1995) conception of discourse and proceed from the assumption that texts and discourses are both socially shaped and socially constitutive.
13 The media sample was drawn from the Newsbank media database. It was collected using different combinations of the search terms ‘Victoria’, ‘hate crime’ and ‘law’. The date range was restricted to 2009 and the resultant sample ranges from 20 February 2009 to 10 December 2009. Relevant media collected, coded and analysed include: 15 news articles; 11 letters to the editor; 3 opinion pieces; and 1 editorial (a total of 30 distinct texts). Initially the search was restricted to Victorian newspapers. Subsequently, it was expanded to include The Australian to gain a national reporting perspective. The majority of articles (six) and letters (eight) and the editorial are from The Age, whereas the majority of opinion pieces are from the Geelong Advertiser. In order to keep the analysis focused specifically on law reform, I did not include in the sample articles that addressed racial violence against Indian students if they were absent of reference to hate crime law; this has been covered elsewhere in Dunn et al (Citation2011) and Mason (Citation2012).
14 Submissions examined are those authored by: Council to Homeless Persons and PILCH Homeless Persons Legal Clinic; Flemington & Kensington Community Legal Centre; Jewish Community Council of Victoria and the B’nai B’rith Anti-Defamation Commission; Liberty Victoria; Victorian Aboriginal Legal Service; Victorian Network of Women with Disabilities; and Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission.
16 For a similar methological rationale, see Millbank (Citation2012).
17 Penalty is ‘the broad field of institutions, practices, discourses and social relations which surround the ideas and practices of punishment’. Baldry et al (Citation2011), p 26.
37 But see Russell (Citation2015) for an example of a successful construction of legitimate victimhood by an historically marginalised group.
52 An additional site of unpredictability in the communicative aspect of law is in its uneven and discretionary application by police and courts, which was highlighted by some public submissions to the Eames Review (e.g. Victorian Aboriginal Legal Service (Citation2010) and Flemington & Kensington Community Legal Centre (Citation2010)). See Deford (Citation2005).
58 Victoria, Parliamentary Debates, Legislative Assembly, 17 September 2009, p 3358.
62 Topsfield (Citation2009); see also Jewish Community Council of Victoria and the B’nai B’rith Anti-Defamation Commission (Citation2010).
63 LGBTIQ refers to lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer communities.
75 Eames (Citation2009). The Eames Review was initiated ‘to ensure Victorians are protected against the abhorrent nature of hate crime and assist the justice system in sentencing the perpetrators of such crimes appropriately’.
76 The author submitted a request for the Eames Review documents under Freedom of Information legislation, but was denied on the basis that: ‘a position on the recommendations in the report was not reached by the government of the day in 2010, [hence] disclosure would be contrary to the public interest by reason that it would lead to unnecessary debate on issues that have not been deliberated on or decided by government, either current or former. Source: Personal Correspondence with the author from J. Frampton, Victorian Department of Justice and Regulation, 31/08/2016.
82 Austin et al (Citation2009). This front-page story generated a number of articles in other papers, multiple letters to the Editor, opinion pieces and an Editorial, most appearing the following day on 3 June 2009.
87 Victoria, Parliamentary Debates, Legislative Assembly, 17 September 2009, p 3358.
105 Victorian Equal Opportunity & Human Rights Commission (Citation2010), p 3.
106 Victorian Equal Opportunity & Human Rights Commission (Citation2010), pp 23, 38.
109 Victorian Network of Women with Disabilities (Citation2010).
110 See Victorian Aboriginal Legal Service (Citation2010); Flemington-Kensington Community Legal Centre (2010); Council to Homeless Persons and PILCH Homeless Persons Legal Clinic (Citation2010).
113 Council to Homeless Persons and PILCH Homeless Persons Legal Clinic (Citation2010), p 7.
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