Coffee and Health: A Review of Recent Human Research

Figures & data

Figure 1 Chemical structures of caffeine and adenosine.

Figure 2 Major pathways in caffeine metabolism. Abbreviations: CYP1A2, cytochrome P450 1A2; CYP2A6, cytochrome P450 2A6; NAT2, N-acetyl transferase 2; XO, xanthine oxidase.

Figure 3 Chemical structures of cafestol and kahweol, diterpenes in coffee with cholesterol-raising effects. R = H: free diterpene; R = fatty acid: diterpene ester.

Figure 4 Chemical structure of 5-O-cafeoylquinic acid (chlorogenic acid).

Table 1 Prospective cohort studies of coffee consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus

	Cohort	Cases		Multivariate risk or
Reference	(Country)	(Follow-up)	Association	hazard ratio
Salazar-Martinez	41,934 men	1333 (12 y)	Coffee: inverse	Coffee: 0.46, ≥6 cups/d,
et al., 2004 ^5	(US)		Decaf: inverse	P ^† = 0.007
			Caffeine: inverse	Decaf: 0.74, ≥4 cups/d,
			Tea: NS*	P = 0.048
Salazar-Martinez	84,276 women	4085 (8 y)	Coffee: inverse	Coffee: 0.71, ≥6 cups/d,
et al., 2004 ^5	(US)		Decaf: inverse	P < 0.001
			Caffeine: inverse	Decaf: 0.85, ≥4 cups/d,
			Tea: NS	P = 0.008
Rosengren et al.,	1361 women	74 (18 y)	Coffee: inverse	Coffee: 0.45, 5–6 cups/d, 0.57,
2004 ^35	(Sweden)			> 6 cups/d, P = 0.029
Tuomilehto et al.,	6974 men	381 (12 y)	Coffee: inverse in	Men: 0.45, ≥10 cups/d, P = 0.12
2004 ^36	7655 women		men and women	Women: 0.21, ≥10 cups/d,
	(Finland)			P < 0.001
Carlsson et al.,	10,652 men and women	408 (20 y)	Coffee: inverse	Coffee: 0.65, ≥7 cups/d
2004 ^34	(Finland)			P for trend not provided
van Dam et al.,	1312 men and women	128 (6.4 y)	Coffee: NS	Coffee: 0.69, ≥7 cups/d,
2004 ^40	(Netherlands)			P = 0.09
Reunanen et al.,	19,518 men and women	855 (14 y)	Coffee: NS	Coffee: 0.92, ≥7 cups/d
2003 ^38	(Finland)
Saremi et al.,	2680 men and women	824 (11 y)	Coffee: NS	Coffee: 0.92, ≥3 cups/d,
2003 ^39	(US, Pima Indians)			P = 0.60
van Dam and	17,111 men and women	306 (10 y)	Coffee: inverse	Coffee: 0.50, ≥7 cups/d,
Feskens, 2002 ^37	(Netherlands)		Tea: NS	P < 0.002

Table 2 Prospective cohort studies of caffeine consumption and the risk of Parkinson's disease

	Cohort	Cases		Multivariate risk or
Reference	(Country)	(Follow-up)	Association	hazard ratio
Ascherio et al.,	301,164 men	909 men	Coffee:	Coffee:
2004 ^68	238,058 women	340 women	Inverse in men	Men
	(US)	(10 y)	NS* in women	0.63, ≥6 cups/d, P ^† = 0.011
			Inverse in women who never	Women
			used estrogen	0.90, ≥6 cups/d, P = 0.57
			NS in women who ever used	Never used estrogen
			estrogen	0.47, ≥4 cups/d, P = 0.11
				Ever used estrogen
				1.31, ≥4 cups/d, P = 0.93
Ascherio et al.,	77,713 women	154 women	Caffeine:	Caffeine:
2003 ^70	(US)	(18 y)	NS in women who never used	Never used estrogen
(Renalysis of			estrogen (inverse trend)	0.65, 688 mg/d, P = 0.12
Ascherio et al.,			NS in women who ever used	Ever used estrogen
2001)			estrogen (positive trend)	1.49, 688 mg/d, P = 0.15
			Coffee:	Coffee:
			Inverse in women who never	Never used estrogen
			used estrogen	0.50, 1–3 cups/d, P = 0.06
			Positive in women who ever	Ever used estrogen
			used estrogen	3.92, ≥6 cups/d, P = 0.26
Ascherio et al.,	47,351 men	157 men	Caffeine:	Caffeine:
2001 ^3	88,565 women	(10 y)	Inverse in men	Men
	(US)	131 women	U-shaped in women	0.4, 627 mg/d, P < 0.001
		(16 y)	Coffee:	Women
			Inverse in men	0.6, 500 mg/d, P = 0.6
			U-shaped in women	Coffee:
				Men
				0.6, 1–3 cups/d, P = 0.002
				Women
				0.6, 1–3 cups/d, P = 0.096
Ross et al.,	8004 Japanese-	102 men	Caffeine:	Caffeine:
2000 ^67	American men	(30 y)	Inverse in men	Men
	(US)		Coffee:	5.1, < 123 vs. ≥421 mg/d,
			Inverse in men	P < 0.001
				Coffee:
				Men
				5.1, none vs. > 28 oz/d,
				P < 0.001

Salazar-Martinez , E. , Willett , W. C. Ascherio , A. 2004 . Coffee consumption and risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus . Ann. Intern. Med. , 140 : 1 – 8 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]

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Rosengren , A. , Dotevall , A. , Wilhelmsen , L. , Thelle , D. and Johansson , S. 2004 . Coffee and incidence of diabetes in Swedish women: a prospective 18-year follow-up study . J. Intern. Med. , 255 : 89 – 95 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]

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Tuomilehto , J. , Hu , G. and Bidel , S. 2004 . Coffee consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus among middle-aged Finnish men and women . JAMA. , 291 : 1213 – 1219 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]

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Carlsson , S. , Hammar , N. , Grill , V. and Kaprio , J. 2004 . Coffee consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes in Finnish twins . Int. J. Epidemiol. , 33 : 616 – 617 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]

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van Dam , R. M. , Dekker , J. M. Nijpels , G. 2004 . Coffee consumption and incidence of impaired fasting glucose, impaired glucose tolerance, and type 2 diabetes: the Hoorn Study . Diabetologia. , 47 : 2152 – 2159 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]

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Reunanen , A. , Heliovaara , M. and Aho , K. 2003 . Coffee consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus . Lancet. , 361 : 702 – 703 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]

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Saremi , A. , Tulloch-Reid , M. and Knowler , W. C. 2003 . Coffee consumption and the incidence of type 2 diabetes . Diabetes Care. , 26 : 2211 – 2212 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]

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van Dam , R. M. and Feskens , E. J. 2002 . Coffee consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus . Lancet. , 360 : 1477 – 1478 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]

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Ascherio , A. , Weisskopf , M. G. O'Reilly , E. J. 2004 . Coffee consumption, gender, and Parkinson's disease mortality in the cancer prevention study II cohort: The modifying effects of estrogen . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 160 : 977 – 984 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]

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Ascherio , A. , Chen , H. Schwarzschild , M. A. 2003 . Caffeine, postmenopausal estrogen, and risk of Parkinson's disease . Neurology. , 60 : 790 – 795 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]

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Ascherio , A. , Zhang , S. M. and Hernan , M. A. 2001 . Prospective study of caffeine consumption and risk of Parkinson's disease in men and women . Ann. Neurol. , 50 : 56 – 63 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]

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Ross , G. W. , Abbott , R. D. Petrovitch , H. 2000 . Association of coffee and caffeine intake with the risk of Parkinson disease . JAMA. , 283 : 2674 – 2679 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]

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