Lupinus mutabilis: Composition, Uses, Toxicology, and Debittering

Figures & data

Table 1 Composition of lupin seeds

	Whole raw L. albus		Whole raw L. angustifolius		Whole raw L. luteus		Whole raw L. mutabilis				Whole debittered L. mutabilis
Material	Average	References	Average	References	Average	References	Average	Min	Max	References	Average	Min	Max	References
Macronutrients (100/g dw except for moisture)
Moisture (g)	8.6	(Petterson, 1998)	9.0	(Petterson and Crosbie, 1990), (Petterson, 1998)	9.4	(Chango et al., 1993b), (Petterson, 1998)	8.1	6.2	9.9	(Petterson, 1998), (Güémes-Vera et al., 2008), (Villacrés et al., 2000), (Caicedo et al., 2001)	74.3	73.6	75.0	(Villacrés et al., 2000), (Caicedo et al., 2001)
Metabolic energy (KJ)	2078	(Petterson, 1998)	2032	(Petterson, 1998)	2164	(Petterson, 1998)	2307	n.a (not available)	n.a	(Villacrés et al., 2000)	2441.0	n.a	n.a	(Villacrés et al., 2000), (Caicedo et al., 2001)
Crude Protein (g)	38.2	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2003a), (Haq, 1993), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985)	33.9	(Haq, 1993), (Petterson and Crosbie, 1990), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985)	42.2	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2003a), (Haq, 1993), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985)	43.3	32.0	52.6	(Carvalho et al., 2005), (Güémes-Vera et al., 2008), (Gross et al., 1988), (Pate et al., 1985), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Gueguen and Cerletti, 1994), (Haq, 1993), (Ortiz and Mukherjee, 1982), (Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2003a), (Caicedo et al., 2001), (Villacrés et al., 2000), (Carvajal-Larenas et al., 2012)	57.5	51.1	72.0	(Villacrés et al., 2000), (Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Caicedo et al., 2001), (Carvajal-Larenas et al., 2012)
Crude lipids (g)	11.2	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2003a), (Haq, 1993), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985)	6.3	(Haq, 1993), (Petterson and Crosbie, 1990), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985)	5.5	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2003a), (Haq, 1993), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985)	18.9	13.0	24.6	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2003a), (Ortiz and Mukherjee, 1982), (Haq, 1993), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Pate et al., 1985), (Güémes-Vera et al., 2008), (Carvalho et al., 2005), (Caicedo et al., 2001), (Villacrés et al., 2000), (Carvajal-Larenas et al., 2012)	16.6	8.9	20.4	(Villacrés et al., 2000), (Caicedo et al., 2001), (Carvajal-Larenas et al., 2012)
Fiber (g)	8.9	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2003a), (Haq, 1993), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985)	16.0	(Haq, 1993), (Petterson and Crosbie, 1990), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985)	15.8	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2003a), (Haq, 1993), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985)	8.2	6.2	11.0	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2003a), (Haq, 1993), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Pate et al., 1985), (Güémes-Vera et al., 2008), (Carvalho et al., 2005), (Caicedo et al., 2001), (Villacrés et al., 2000)	7.2	6.9	7.5	(Villacrés et al., 2000), (Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Caicedo et al., 2001)
Ash (g)	3.4	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2003a), (Petterson, 1998)	3.0	(Petterson and Crosbie, 1990), (Petterson, 1998)	3.8	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2003a), (Petterson, 1998)	3.9	2.4	5.2	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2003a), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Güémes-Vera et al., 2008), (Carvalho et al., 2005), (Caicedo et al., 2001), (Villacrés et al., 2000), (Carvajal-Larenas et al., 2012)	2.9	1.9	5.0	(Villacrés et al., 2000), (Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Caicedo et al., 2001), (Carvajal-Larenas et al., 2012)
Carbohydrates (g)	39.3	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2003a), (Pate et al., 1985)	41.0	4(Petterson and Crosbie, 1990), (Pate et al., 1985)	38.8	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2003a), (Pate et al., 1985)	32.9	26.1	43.2	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2003a), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Pate et al., 1985), (Güémes-Vera et al., 2008), (Villacrés et al., 2000), (Caicedo et al., 2001), (Carvajal-Larenas et al., 2012)	26.7	22.0	33.2	(Villacrés et al., 2000), (Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Caicedo et al., 2001), (Carvajal-Larenas et al., 2012)
Fatty acids (g 100/g dw)
C16:0 (Palmitic)	7.9	(Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985)	10.3	(Petterson, 1998), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978)	5.8	(Petterson, 1998), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978)	10.4	0.6	13.9	(Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985), (Gross et al., 1988)	11.3	n.a	n.a	(Caicedo et al., 2001)
C16:1 (Palmitoleic)	n.a		n.a				13.9	13.9	13.9	(Petterson, 1998)	0.2	n.a	n.a	(Caicedo et al., 2001)
C16:2 (Hexadecadioneic acid)	n.a		n.a		n.a		0.2	0.2	0.2	59(Petterson, 1998)	n.a	n.a	n.a
C18:0 (Stearic)	1.6	(Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985)	5.2	(Petterson, 1998), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978)	2.0	(Petterson, 1998), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978)	4.7	2.0	8.2	(Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985), (Gross et al., 1988)	7.3	n.a	n.a	(Caicedo et al., 2001)
C18:1 (Oleic)	54.0	(Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985)	33.9	(Petterson, 1998), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978)	28.5	(Petterson, 1998), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978)	46.4	41.2	56.2	(Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985, 88{Gross, 1988 #134)	52.5	n.a	n.a	(Caicedo et al., 2001)
C18:2 (Linoleic)	18.7	(Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985)	40.3	(Petterson, 1998), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978)	48.2	(Petterson, 1998), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978)	33.1	26.5	39.6	(Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985), (Gross et al., 1988)	28.4	n.a	n.a	(Caicedo et al., 2001)
C18:3 (Linolenic)	8.6	(Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985)	5.6	(Petterson, 1998), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978)	6.3	(Petterson, 1998), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978)	2.5	1.9	3	(Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985), (Gross et al., 1988)	3.0	n.a	n.a	(Caicedo et al., 2001)
C20:0 (Araquidic)	1.0	(Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985)	0.7	(Petterson, 1998), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978)	2.2	(Petterson, 1998), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978)	0.9	0.9	0.9	(Aguilera and Trier, 1978)	n.a	n.a	n.a
C22: 0 (Behenic))	3.3	(Petterson, 1998),60	1.5	(Petterson, 1998), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978)	6.6	(Petterson, 1998), 56	0.6	0.6	0.6	(Aguilera and Trier, 1978)	n.a	n.a	n.a
Minerals (mg 100/g dw)
Ca	200	(Petterson, 1998)	232	(Petterson, 1998), (Petterson and Crosbie, 1990)	210	(Petterson, 1998)	147	120	180	(Peñaloza et al., 1991), (Petterson, 1998), (Villacrés et al., 2000)	320.7	130	420	(Peñaloza et al., 1991), (Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Villacrés et al., 2000)
Cu	0.5	(Petterson, 1998)	0.5	(Petterson, 1998), (Petterson and Crosbie, 1990)	0.9	(Petterson, 1998)	1.0	0.8	1.1	(Petterson, 1998), (Villacrés et al., 2000)	1.0	n.a	n.a	(Villacrés et al., 2000)
Fe	2.6	(Petterson, 1998)	6.1	(Petterson, 1998), (Petterson and Crosbie, 1990)	9.3	(Petterson, 1998)	5.9	5.0	7.3	(Petterson, 1998), (Villacrés et al., 2000), (Carvajal-Larenas et al., 2012)	12.6	5.8	19.9	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Villacrés et al., 2000), (Carvajal-Larenas et al., 2012)
K	n.a		n.a		n.a		1265	1130	1400	(Peñaloza et al., 1991), (Villacrés et al., 2000)	20.5	15	28.6	(Peñaloza et al., 1991), (Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Villacrés et al., 2000)
Mg	n.a		n.a		n.a		285	240	330	(Peñaloza et al., 1991), (Villacrés et al., 2000)	109.7	69.1	170	(Peñaloza et al., 1991), (Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Villacrés et al., 2000)
Mn	83.5	(Petterson, 1998)	2.1	(Petterson, 1998), (Petterson and Crosbie, 1990)	8.6	(Petterson, 1998)	3.2	2.6	3.7	(Petterson, 1998), (Villacrés et al., 2000)	2.6	n.a	n.a	(Villacrés et al., 2000)
Na	n.a		n.a		n.a		n.a	n.a	n.a		47.2	42.0	52.4	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Villacrés et al., 2000)
P	360	(Petterson, 1998)	321	(Petterson, 1998), (Petterson and Crosbie, 1990)	610	(Petterson, 1998)	753	600	880	(Peñaloza et al., 1991), (Castillo, 1965), (Petterson, 1998), (Villacrés et al., 2000)	793.3	430	1450	(Peñaloza et al., 1991), (Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Villacrés et al., 2000)
Zn	3.0	(Petterson, 1998)	3.6	(Petterson, 1998), (Petterson and Crosbie, 1990)	5.6	(Petterson, 1998)	3.5	3.4	3.6	(Villacrés et al., 2000), (Carvajal-Larenas et al., 2012)	4.3	3.6	5.0	(Villacrés et al., 2000), (Carvajal-Larenas et al., 2012)

Table 2 Amino acid composition of lupin seeds

Material	Whole raw L albus		Whole raw L angustifolius		Whole raw L luteus		Whole raw L mutabilis				Whole debittered L mutabilis				FAO/WHO (1)
	Average	References	Average	References	Average	References	Average	Min	Max	References	Average	Min	Max	References	(2)	(3)	(4)
Amino acid (g 100/g proteins)
Alanine	n.a		n.a		n.a		3.3	3.2	3.4	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Gross et al., 1988)	4.1	n.a	n.a	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)	n.a	n.a	n.a
Arginine	12.4	(Petterson, 1998)	12.0	(Petterson, 1998)	9.1	(Petterson, 1998)	10.2	9.1	11.1	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Petterson, 1998), (Gross et al., 1988)	11.6	n.a	n.a	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)	n.a	n.a	n.a
Aspartic acid	n.a		n.a		n.a		9.6	8.7	10.3	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Gross et al., 1988)	9.6	n.a	n.a	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)	n.a	n.a	n.a
Cystine^5	1.5	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	1.6	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	2.4	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	1.6	1.4	1.7	(Haq, 1993), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985), (Gross et al., 1988)	Traces	n.a	n.a	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)	n.a	n.a	n.a
Glutamic acid	n.a		n.a		n.a		24.3	22.8	26.3	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Gross et al., 1988)	23.6	n.a	n.a	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)	n.a	n.a	n.a
Glycine	n.a		n.a		n.a		3.8	3.7	3.9	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Gross et al., 1988)	3.8	n.a	n.a	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)	n.a	n.a	n.a
Hystidine	2.0	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	2.6	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	3.1	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	3.5	3.0	4.2	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Petterson, 1998), (Gross et al., 1988)	2.9	n.a	n.a	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)	n.a	n.a	n.a
Isoleucine	4.1	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	4.0	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	3.6	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	4.2	3.6	4.8	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Haq, 1993), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985), (Gross et al., 1988), (Güémes-Vera et al., 2008)	4.0	n.a	n.a	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)	4.6	2.8	1.3
Leucine	6.8	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	6.9	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	7.8	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	7.0	5.7	7.8	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Haq, 1993), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985), (Gross et al., 1988), (Güémes-Vera et al., 2008)	6.7	n.a	n.a	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)	9.3	6.6	1.9
Lysine	4.5	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	4.6	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	4.5	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	5.8	5.0	7.3	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Haq, 1993), 56(Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985), (Gross et al., 1988), (Güémes-Vera et al., 2008)	7.8	n.a	n.a	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)	6.6	5.8	1.6
Methionine	0.7	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	0.7	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	0.6	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	0.8	0.4	1.4	(Haq, 1993), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985), (Gross et al., 1988)	Traces	n.a	n.a	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)	n.a	n.a	n.a
Methionine +Cystine	2.2	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	2.3	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	3.0	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	2.4	1.8	3.1	(Haq, 1993), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985), (Gross et al., 1988)	Traces	n.a	n.a	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)	4.2	2.5	1.7
Phenylalanine	3.4	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	3.7	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	3.7	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	3.5	3.0	4.0	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Pate et al., 1985), (Gross et al., 1988), (Güémes-Vera et al., 2008)	3.8	n.a	n.a	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)	7.2	6.3	1.9
Proline	n.a		n.a		n.a		3.8	3.7	4.0	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Gross et al., 1988)	4.2	n.a	n.a	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)	n.a	n.a	n.a
Serine	n.a		n.a		n.a		4.9	4.2	5.3	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Gross et al., 1988)	5.5	n.a	n.a	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)	n.a	n.a	n.a
Threonine	3.4	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	3.4	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	3.0	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	3.5	3.0	4.0	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Haq, 1993), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985), (Gross et al., 1988), (Güémes-Vera et al., 2008)	4.1	n.a	n.a	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)	4.3	3.4	0.9
Tryptophan	0.9	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	0.9	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	0.9	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	0.8	0.5	1.0	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985), (Gross et al., 1988)	0.6	n.a	n.a	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)	n.a	n.a	n.a
Tyrosine	4.8	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	3.4	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	2.9	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	4.0	3.4	5.1	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Petterson, 1998), (Gross et al., 1988), (Güémes-Vera et al., 2008)	3.4	n.a	n.a	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)	n.a	0.6	n.a
Valine	3.8	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	3.7	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	3.4	(Petterson, 1998), (Haq, 1993)	3.8	3.2	4.9	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980), (Haq, 1993), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978), (Petterson, 1998), (Pate et al., 1985), (Gross et al., 1988), (Güémes-Vera et al., 2008)	3.4	n.a	n.a	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)	3.5	3.5	1.3

¹Recommendation from ref. (Múzquiz et al., 1994).

²Children of less than two years.

³Children of —two to five years.

⁴Adults.⁵Equivalent to 3.168 g/100 g cysteine.

Table 3 Vitamins in lupin seeds

Vitamins (mg/100 g)	Mix of raw L. tricolor + L. mutabilis	References	Mix of debittered L. tricolor + L. mutabilis	References	Debittered L. mutabilis	References
Carotene	0.1	(Castillo, 1965)	0.6	(Castillo, 1965)	n.a
B1-Thiamine	0.6	(Castillo, 1965)	0.01	(Castillo, 1965)	0.6	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)
B2-Riboflavin	0.5	(Castillo, 1965)	0.02	(Castillo, 1965)	0.5	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)
B3-Niacin	4.1	(Castillo, 1965)	0.0	(Castillo, 1965)	3.1	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)

Table 4 Alkaloids in Lupinus spp.

Alkaloids	L. albus	L. angustifolius	L. luteus	L. mutabilis
				Average	Min	Max	References
Content (g/100 g seed) dw	0.186 (0.005–0.367)^1	0.7545 (0.095–1.4)^1	0.985 (0.47–1.5)^1	2.8	0.007	4.5	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2003a), (Haq, 1993), (Beirao da Costa, 1989), (Gueguen and Cerletti, 1994), (Hatzold et al., 1983), (Nossack et al., 2000), (Gross et al., 1988), (Villacrés et al., 2000), (Carvajal-Larenas et al., 2012)
Composition (%)
Lupanine	70^2	70^2	60^2	64.4	46.0	84.5	(Petterson, 1998), (Hatzold et al., 1983), (Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2007), (Múzquiz et al., 1989)
D-Lupanine	n.a	n.a	n.a	13.0	n.a	n.a	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2007)
Sparteine	n.a	n.a	30^2	12.6	6.6	19.1	(Petterson, 1998), (Hatzold et al., 1983), (Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2007), (Múzquiz et al., 1989)
Albine	15^2	n.a	n.a	n.a	n.a	n.a
3-Hydroxylupanine	n.a	n.a	n.a	12	n.a	n.a	(Petterson, 1998)
13-Hydroxylupanine	8^2	12^2	n.a	9.5	1.6	14.9	(Petterson, 1998), (Hatzold et al., 1983), (Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2007)
4-Hydroxylupanine	n.a	n.a	n.a	4.9	1.1	8.7	(Hatzold et al., 1983), (Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2007)
Tetrahydrorhombifoline	n.a	n.a	n.a	2.8	2.0	3.5	(Petterson, 1998), (Hatzold et al., 1983)
Angustifoline/oxoasparteine	n.a	10^2	n.a	2.3	0.6	5.4	(Petterson, 1998), (Hatzold et al., 1983), (Múzquiz et al., 1989)
4,13-Dihydroxylupanine	n.a	n.a	n.a	2.1	n.a	n.a	(Hatzold et al., 1983)
13-(Angeloyloxi) lupanine	n.a	n.a	n.a	1.8	1.6	2.0	(Petterson, 1998), (Hatzold et al., 1983)
Cis-13-(cinnamoyloxy)lupanine	n.a	n.a	n.a	1.2	n.a	n.a	(Hatzold et al., 1983)
Ammodendrine	n.a	n.a	n.a	1.1	0.2	2.0	(Petterson, 1998), (Hatzold et al., 1983)
Multiflorine	3^2	n.a	n.a	1.0	0.1	1.8	(Hatzold et al., 1983), (Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2007)
Oxo-esparteine	n.a	n.a	n.a	0.5	n.a	n.a	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2007)
Trans-13-(cinnamoyloxy) lupanine	n.a	n.a	n.a	0.4	n.a	n.a	(Hatzold et al., 1983)
13-(Tigloyloxy)lupanine	n.a	n.a	n.a	0.3	n.a	n.a	(Hatzold et al., 1983)
α-Isolupanine	n.a	n.a	n.a	0.3	n.a	n.a	(Hatzold et al., 1983)
4-(Angeloyloxy)lupanine	n.a	n.a	n.a	0.3	n.a	n.a	(Hatzold et al., 1983)
13-(Benzoyloxy)lupanine	n.a	n.a	n.a	0.2	n.a	n.a	(Hatzold et al., 1983)
13-(Angelolyloxy)-4-hydroxylupanine	n.a	n.a	n.a	0.2	n.a	n.a	(Hatzold et al., 1983)
17-Oxolupanine	n.a	n.a	n.a	0.1	n.a	n.a	(Hatzold et al., 1983)
Dehydrolupanine	n.a	n.a	n.a	0.1	n.a	n.a	(Hatzold et al., 1983)
11–12-Dehydroasparteine	n.a	n.a	n.a	0.1	n.a	n.a	(Hatzold et al., 1983)
Anagyrine	n.a	n.a	n.a	0.03	n.a	n.a	(Hatzold et al., 1983)

¹(Haq, 1993).

²(Petterson, 1998).

Figure 1 Structure of Lupinus spp. alkaloids.

Table 5 Studies of alkaloids toxicity on humans

Material	Administrated way	Evaluation way	Dose unit	Average	Min	Max	References
Sparteine	Oral-acute	Mortal doses	mg/kg bw	>30	n.a	n.a	(Australia New Zealand Food Authority, 2001)
Mixed alkaloids	Oral-acute	5 people, 3 lethal, 2 serious intoxication	mg/kg bw	28.5	11	46	(Australia New Zealand Food Authority, 2001)
Total alkaloids	Not specified, oral presumably	Toxic for small children	mg/kg bw	17.5	10	25	(Cremer, 1983)
Total alkaloids	Not specified, oral presumably	Toxic for adult	mg/kg bw	35	25	45	(Cremer, 1983)
Total alkaloids	Not specified, oral presumably	Nonfatal in adults	mg/kg bw	36	25	46	(Aguilera and Trier, 1978)
Total alkaloids	Not specified, oral presumably	Fatal cases in infants and children	mg/kg bw	18	11	25	(Aguilera and Trier, 1978)
Lupanine or 13-hydroxylupanine	Oral-acute (capsule) administered to 11 volunteers	No reported complications	mg per ingestion	10	n.a	n.a	(Australia New Zealand Food Authority, 2001)
Total alkaloids	Oral (diet based in Lupinus albus flour 0.02% alkaloids) on 20 military cadets, four weeks	Blood analysis, no complications. Good digestibility	mg/d	12	n.a	n.a	(Aguilera and Trier, 1978)
Total alkaloids	Not specified, oral presumably	Safe doses	mg/d	500	n.a	n.a	(Aguilera and Trier, 1978)

Table 6 Allergenicity and anti-nutritional factors

	L. albus	References	L. angustifolius	References	L. luteus	References	L. mutabilis	References	Soya bean Glycine max	References
Phytic acid (g/100 g)	1.42 ± 0.06	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)	1.45 ± 0.4	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)	2.72 ± 0.9	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)	2.74 ± 0.4	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)	1.23 ± 2.3	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)
Saponins (g/100 g)	0.9 ± 0.02	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)	0.9 ± 0.04	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)	1.22 ± 0.05	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)	1.7 ± 0.08	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)	1.7 ± 0.01	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)
Condensed tannins (g/100 g)	0.01	(Petterson and Mackintosh, 1994)	0.01	(Petterson and Mackintosh, 1994)	0.02	(Zdunczyk et al., 1994)	0.06	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2007)	n.a
Trypsin inhibitors (g/100 g)	0.01	(Petterson and Mackintosh, 1994)	0.01	(Petterson and Mackintosh, 1994)	0.03	(Zdunczyk et al., 1994)	n.a		n.a
Stachyose (g/100 g)	0.8 ± 0.2	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)	0.3 ± 0.0	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)	1.0 ± 0.2	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)	1.3 ± 0.3	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)	3.7 ± 0.7	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)
Raffinose (g/100 g)	0.8 ± 0.2	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)	0.6 ± 0.0	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)	1.0 ± 0.2	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)	0.9 ± 0.2	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)	1.0 ± 0.2	(Múzquiz et al., 1989)

Table 7 Debittering processes of lupin and impact on several variables

Way	General substrate	Specific substrate	Attached material	% Alkaloid(s) reduction	Residues management	Sensorial properties impact	Nutritional composition impact	Used time (hour)	Economic feasibility analysis	Relation used water: seed	Used energy	Determined alkaloids content by	Reference
Biological way
Bacterial fermentation	Dehulled, soaked, grinded L albus cv. Multolupa	Suspension 12% lupin floor, inoculated with 1% v/v	L.acidophhilus, L. buchneri, L. cellobiosus and L. fermentum	≤ 41.1, Best result with L. acidophilus	No residues (n.r)	n.a	No differences in protein ratio or protein digestibility	> 24	n.a	10.3: 1	24 hours, 37°C	Titrimetric method	(Camacho et al., 1991)
Bacterial fermentation	Decorticated Lupinus albus flour, 21.5 g alkaloid/kg	Particle size 0.5–1.0 mm	Bacterial strains IST 20B, IST 40 D	50	n.r.	n.a	n.a	120	n.a	n.m	120 hours, 31.2°C	GC	(Santana and Empis, 2001)
Fungal fermentation	L mutabilis (7.92 g alkaloid/kg^−1)	Soaked 18 hours in 1 g/L lactic acid sol., dehulled, cooked 121°C, five minutes	R. oligosporus 1 g/kg	91	n.a	n.a	Red. Olygosaccharies.	67	n.a	>40:1	48 hours, 30°C	GC/Mass Spectrometry	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2007)
Fungal fermentation	L. mutabilis (8.03 and 0.285 g alkaloid/kg^−1)	Dehulled, 5 mm –grind ed	R. oligosporus spores NRRL 2710	50–57	n.r	Good results in fried	50% fat loss, NPR almost constant	60	n.a	8:1	45 hours, 30°C, 2 hours, 100°C	Titrimetric method	(Agosin et al., 1989)
Germination	Lupinus angustifolius ‘Gungurru’ seed, 0.72 g alkaloid/kg	24 hours-soaked seeds	Water	78	n.r	n.a	Increment in protein content PER goes from 1.45 to 0.44	168	n.a	n.a	168 hours, 20–25°C	n.a	(Dagnia et al., 1992)
Chemical
Hexane- basic solution extraction	Lupinus mutabilis 42 g alkaloid/kg^−1	Defatted, flaked lupin	Hexane: Sodium carbonate (15%), hydrochloric acid (5%)	80–90	n.a	n.a	Reduced fat content	3 hours	n.a	n.a	3 hours, 60°C	Titrimetric method	(Ortiz and Mukherjee, 1982)
Hexane- basic solution extraction	Lupinus mutabilis vs. Keyra 19.4 g^−1 alkaloid/kg^−1	Dehulled, split seed	Hexane, ammoniac solution 2 N, absolute ethanol	96.9	n.a	No-bitter taste in product	13% solids loss	≈ 24 hours	n.a	n.a	n.a	Gravimetric method	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)
Basic extraction	Lupinus campestris 27.4 g alkaloid/kg^−1	Whole seed	Solution NaHCO3	99.9	n.a	n.a	Reduced carbohydrates content	6 hours	n.a	n.a	6 hours boiling	HPLC	(Jiménez-Martínez et al., 2003a)
Basic extraction	Lupinus mutabilis 20 g alkaloid/kg^−1	Dehulled, cracked, grounded (100 mesh)	NaOH. Centrifuge	99.9	n.a	n.a	Incremented protein content to 78–83%, 80% oil recovered	>0.7	n.a	60:1	0.7 hours, 65°C	Titrimetric method	(Aguilera et al., 1983)
Basic extraction	Lupinus mutabilis vs. Keyra 19.4 g alkaloid kg^−1	Whole seed	Alkaline medium	98.6	n.a	n.a	13% solid loss	> 17 hours	n.a	8 hours running water	5 hours, 70°C. 15 minutes. 100°C	Gravimetric method	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)
Alcoholic extraction	Lupinus mutabilis ‘ Keyra’ 19.4 g alkaloid/kg^−1	Dehulled, split seed.	Pre-treated with ethylene at 60°C. Hexane-ethanol-water (75:15:1)	97.9	n.a	No-bitter taste in product	12% solids loss	>20 hours	n.a	n.a	60°C, 5 hours	Gravimetric method	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)
Alcoholic extraction	Lupinus mutabilis	Dried, powered seed 70–100 mesh	Supercritical fluid: CO2 10%, ethanol absolute, 80 atm, 60°C	39.8 mg/1 g of seed	n.a	n.a	n.a	0.33	n.a	24:1	0.3 hours 60°C,	High Resolution GC	(Nossack et al., 2000)
Aqueous extraction
Cold-watery extraction	Lupinus mutabilis ‘Keyra’ 19.4 g alkaloid/kg^−1	Dehulled, split seed	Cold water	95.4	n.r	n.a	26.9% solids loss	72 hours	n.a	n.a	0.5 hours, 90°C	Gravimetric method	(Torres-Tello et al., 1980)
Cold-watery extraction	Lupinus mutabilis Sweet	Whole seed	Cold water	97.4	n.a	n.a	Increased protein, fat, Zn, Fe reduced fiber, ash, carbohydrates	120–144	n.a	n.a	0.5–2 hours boiling	n.a	(Villacrés et al., 2000)
Warm-watery extraction	Lupinus mutabilis	Whole seed	Warm water	93.3	Solid floculation	70–94% liking level	Increased protein content	90	Partially	63:1	90 hours, 40°C	n.a	(Caicedo et al., 2001)

Table 8 Protein fractions in the different lupin species

Protein fractions and families		Lupin specie
Fraction	Family	L. albus	Reference	L. angustifolius	Reference	L. luteus	Reference	L. mutabilis	Reference	Soya bean	Reference
Globulins (%)	All	80	(Gueguen and Cerletti, 1994)	n.a		n.a		≈ 91—94	(Santos et al., 1997)	90	(Gueguen and Cerletti, 1994)
	Legumin-like proteins	33% (α-conglutin). 4 main subunits 50–60 kDa	(Duranti et al., 1981), (Santos et al., 1997)	185–315 kDa	(Doxastakis, 2000)	n.a		(α-conglutin in’Potosi’) Four main subunits 50–65 kDa Two minor subunits 40–42 kDa	(Santos et al., 1997)	20–35% (glycinin) Hexamers: 3 subunits 40 kDa, 3 subunits 20 kDa.	(Gueguen and Cerletti, 1994)
	Vicilin-like proteins	44% of total protein β-conglutin > 20 polypeptides (15–65 kDa)	(Duranti et al., 1981), (Santos et al., 1997)	7.4S and β-conglutin (30 kDa principally)	(Joubert, 1956), (Aguilera and Garcia, 1989), (Blagrove and Gillespie, 1975)	7.4S and β-conglutin	(Joubert, 1956), (Aguilera and Garcia, 1989)	β-conglutin 7 polypeptides (50–67 kDa), (33–38 kDa)	(Santos et al., 1997)	30–35% of total protein mainly. β conglycinin, 6 polypeptides (42–57 kDa)	(Peng et al., 1984),
	Lupin conglutin γ	6% of total protein. A single subunit of 42–43 kDa	(Duranti et al., 1981) (Santos et al., 1997),	Monomer of 43–45 kDa	(Blagrove et al., 1980)	n.a		6% of total protein. A single subunit of 42–43 kDa	(Duranti et al., 1981), (Santos et al., 1997),	n.a
	Lupin conglutin δ	10–12% of total protein	(Duranti et al., 1981)	10–12% of total protein (80% as δ2 of 14 kDa	(Lilley, 1986a), (Lilley and Iuglis, 1986)	n.a		n.a		n.a
Albumins		12.8% of total protein 20 polypeptides of 6–117 kDa	(Hudson, 1994), (Cerletti et al., 1978), (Doxastakis, 2000)	5–10% of total protein 20 polypeptides of 6–117 kDa	(Hudson, 1994), (Blagrove and Guillespie, 1978), (Doxastakis, 2000)	15.4% of total protein 13 polypeptides of 6–117 kDa	(Hudson, 1994), (Konopoka-Waliszkiewicz, 1988), (Doxastakis, 2000)	≈ 6.4% of total protein Abundant 34 kDa	(Santos et al., 1997)	10% of total protein	(Hudson, 1994)

Table 9 Physical and functional properties of lupin flour, concentrates, and isolates

Property	Unit	Lupin specie
		L. albus	References	L. angustifolius	References	L. mutabilis	References
Seed flour
Protein isoelectric point	pH	4.5	(D´Agostina et al., 2006)	4.5	(Sathe et al., 1982)	4	(Bleitgen et al., 1979), (Aguilera and Trier, 1978)
		4.2;5.4; 6.4	(King et al., 1985)	4.3	(Lqari et al., 2002)	4.5	(Bleitgen et al., 1979), (Aguilera et al., 1983)
						6.0	(Aguilera and Trier, 1978)
Protein solubility	Soluble nitrogen (%)	n.a		13.1%/pH 7/solution 1.25% /+ 0.1 M NaCl	(Lqari et al., 2002)	n.a
Water absorption	g/g dw	2.3	(Agosin et al., 1989)	2.4	(Lqari et al., 2002)	1.2	(Sathe et al., 1982)
Oil absorption	g/g dw	n.a		1.5	(Lqari et al., 2002)	1.7	(Sathe et al., 1982)
Emulsifying capacity	g of oil/g of lupin flour	n.a		n.a		55.1, (2% flour, 98% water)	(Sathe et al., 1982)
Emulsifying activity	% = (vol (emulsified layer)/total volume) × 100	n.a		74/pH7/ sol 3.5% w/v (50 water:50 oil)	(Lqari et al., 2002)	n.a
Emulsifying stability	% = (volume (emulsified layer after × time)/total volume) × 100	n.a		69.4/pH 7/0.25 hours/85 °C/0.08 hours 1100 × g/sol 3.5%/		70.8/10 hours/conc.2%/21 °C 69/20–120 hours/conc. 2%/21°C	(Sathe et al., 1982)
Foaming capacity (time 0 hour)	% = (foam volume after whipping/initial volume of protein sol.) × 100	n.a		214/conc. 3%	(Lqari et al., 2002)	132/conc. 2%. 180/conc. 6%. 186/conc. 10%	(Sathe et al., 1982)
Foam stability	% = (foam volume after some time/foam volume after whipping) × 100	n.a		Solution 3% 82/after 1 hour 79.2/after 2 hours	(Lqari et al., 2002)	Conc. 2%: 93.9/after 1 hour 92.4/after 2 hours 78.8/after 36 hours	(Sathe et al., 1982)
Least gelation concentration	% w/V	n.a		6.0/pH 7	(Lqari et al., 2002)	14	(Sathe et al., 1982)
Protein isolate/concentrate
Protein Solubilization	Soluble Nitrogen (%)	10/pH5/u = 0/1% sol. 90/pH 5/u = 1/1% sol.	(King et al., 1985)	19.2/pH 10.5 33.8/pH 12	(Lqari et al., 2002)	>90%/solution 0.1% in NaOH 0.1 N	(Sathe et al., 1982)
Water absorption	g/g dw	0.5/pH 8.6->5.1-> 7 (not heated) 6/pH 8.6->4.9->6 (100 °C)	(King et al., 1985)	3.8/pH 10.5 4.5/pH 12	(Lqari et al., 2002)	1.37 (full-fat) 1.55 (defatted)	(Sathe et al., 1982)
Oil absorption	g/g	1.0–1.8	(D´Agostina et al., 2006)	2.0–3.1	(Lqari et al., 2002)	2.9 (full-fat) 3.9 (defatted)	(Sathe et al., 1982)
Emulsifying capacity	mL or g of oil/g of lupin concentrate	n.a		n.a		88.9 (2% conc. flour, 98% water.) 82.2 (4% conc.) 56.9(/10% conc.) At 2% conc.: 315.5/pH 2. 222.2/pH 4. 80.0/pH 6. 155.5/pH 8. 137.8/pH10.	(Sathe et al., 1982)
	mL of oil/g of protein	370–570 mL/pH 7/conc. 1%	(D´Agostina et al., 2006)	n.a		n.a
		1000 mL/pH 5/conc. 0.04%	(King et al., 1985)	n.a		n.a
		2000 mL/pH 8/conc. 0.0 4%	(King et al., 1985)	n.a		n.a
Emulsifying activity	% = (volume (emulsified layer)/total volume) × 100	n.a		69.1–74.5/pH 7/solution 3.5% (50 Water: 50 oil)	(Lqari et al., 2002)	100/21°C/conc. 2%	(Sathe et al., 1982)
Emulsifying stability	% = (volume (emulsified layer after × time)/total volume) × 100	61–63/solution pH 7, prec. pH 4.5. 74–93/ultradiafiltration pH 4.5	(D´Agostina et al., 2006)	66.7–71/pH 7/0.25 hours 85°C/0.08 hours 1100 × g/conc. 3.5%	(Lqari et al., 2002)	100/60 hours/21°C/conc. 2% 91.4/120 hours/21°C/conc. 2%	(Sathe et al., 1982)
Foaming capacity	% = (foam volume after whipping/ initial volume of protein sol) × 100	1102–2083/conc. 5%	(D´Agostina et al., 2006)	216–219/sol. 3%	(Lqari et al., 2002)	150/conc. 2% 186/conc. 6% 192/conc. 10%	(Sathe et al., 1982)
Foam stability	% = (foam volume after some time/foam volume after whipping) × 100	Solution 5% 68–95/after 1 hours	(D´Agostina et al., 2006)	Solution 3% 81.3–80.7/after 1 hour 80.4–79.9/after 2 hours	(Lqari et al., 2002)	Solution,2% 94.5/after 1 hour 88/after 2 hours 76/after 36 hours	(Sathe et al., 1982)
Least gelation concentration	% w/V	14/pH 4.9 16/pH 4.9–>7	(King et al., 1985)	10–12/100°C	(Lqari et al., 2002)	8	(Sathe et al., 1982)

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