Challenges and solutions of extracting value-added ingredients from fruit and vegetable by-products: a review

Figures & data

Figure 1. Global food wastage volumes of the food supply chain (FAO 2013b).

Figure 2. Food loss percentages of different food commodity groups from post-harvest to distribution level (FAO 2019).

Table 1. The summary of some extracted ingredients from by-products of tomato and carrot using different extraction procedures.

Types of by-products	Value added products	Extraction methods and references
Tomato by-products	Lycopene	Solvent extraction (Kaur et al. 2008), Enzyme assisted extraction (Catalkaya and Kahveci 2019), Ultrasound and enzyme assisted extraction (Rahimpour and Taghian Dinani 2018), Pressurized method (Gallo et al. 2019), Maceration in refined olive oil (Kehili et al. 2019), Supercritical CO2 extraction (Nobre et al. 2009)
	Lycopene and β-carotene	Supercritical CO2 extraction (Sabio et al. 2003)
	Carotenoid	Solvent extraction (Strati and Oreopoulou 2011), Enzyme and high pressure assisted extraction (Strati, Gogou, and Oreopoulou 2015), Ultrasound extraction under pressure (Luengo et al. 2014)
	Pectin	Steam blanching and acidic extraction (Morales-Contreras et al. 2017), Ultrasound assisted extraction (Grassino et al. 2016; Sengar et al. 2020), Acid method extraction (Alancay et al. 2017)
	Protein	Alkaline extraction (Meshkani et al. 2016)
Carrot by-products	Β-carotene	Ultrasonic-shaking incubation method (Mirheli and Taghian Dinani 2018), Ultrasound-assisted extraction (Purohit and Gogate 2015), Electrohydrodynamic‐ultrasonic procedure (Salehi and Taghian Dinani 2020)
	Carotenoids	Pressurized hot ethanol extraction (Mustafa, Trevino, and Turner 2012), Organic solvent-free extraction (Tiwari et al. 2019), Microwave-assisted extraction (Elik, Yanık, and Göğüş 2020)
	Pectin	Microwave, ultrasound and enzyme treatment (Toma, Craciunescu, and Tatia 2019), Acid extraction (Jafari et al. 2017)

Table 2. The summary of some extracted ingredients from by-products of orange, grape, and apple using different extraction procedures.

Types of food by-products	Value added products	Extraction methods and references
Orange by-products	Pectin	Hot-water and microwave-assisted extractions (Benassi, Alessandri, and Vassalini 2021), Ultra-high pressure (Guo et al. 2012), Ohmic heating (Saberian et al. 2017), Aqueous extraction (Hosseini, Khodaiyan, and Yarmand 2016a), Microwave assisted extraction (Hosseini, Khodaiyan, and Yarmand 2016b; Prakash Maran et al. 2013; Yeoh et al. 2008; Zhongdong et al. 2006), Acidic extraction using hydrochloric acid (Twinomuhwezi, Godswill, and Kahunde 2020)
	Essential oil	Steam explosion at high temperature and pressure (Golmohammadi et al. 2018), Soxhlet method (Fakayode and Abobi 2018), Microwave steam diffusion (Farhat et al. 2011), Microwave assisted extraction (Franco-Vega et al. 2016), Acid hydrolysis technique (Fakayode and Abobi 2018)
	Flavanones	Subcritical water extraction (Lachos-Perez et al. 2018)
	Bioactive compounds	Ultrasonication (Montero-Calderon et al. 2019)
	Phenolic compounds	Microwave assisted extraction, supercritical CO2 extraction and high pressure extraction (M’hiri et al. 2015), Electrohydrodynamic process (Shahram and Taghian Dinani 2019)
	Polyphenols	Pulsed electric fields (Luengo, Álvarez, and Raso 2013), Ultrasound-assisted extraction (Khan et al. 2010), High voltage electrical discharges combined with enzymatic hydrolysis (El Kantar et al. 2018), Deep eutectic solvents (Ozturk, Parkinson, and Gonzalez-Miquel 2018)
	β-carotene	Ultrasonic-assisted enzymatic extraction (Shahram and Dinani 2019)
Grape by-products	Polyphenols	Conventional and ultrasound assistant extraction (Natolino and Da Porto 2020), Supercritical fluid extraction (Da Porto and Natolino 2017), Microwave pretreatment (Álvarez et al. 2017)
	Phenolic compounds	High voltage atmospheric cold plasma (Bao, Reddivari, and Huang 2020), Enzyme-assisted extraction and high hydrostatic pressure (Cascaes Teles et al. 2021), Enzymatic extraction process (Meini et al. 2019), Pressurized liquid extraction (Nieto et al. 2020)
	Total phenolics	Microwave- assisted and conventional thermal methods (Kwiatkowski et al. 2020)
	Bioactive compounds	Pressurized liquid extraction (D. T. V. Pereira et al. 2019), Solvent extraction (Jiménez-Moreno et al. 2019; Pintać et al. 2018), Subcritical water, supercritical CO2 and organic solvent extraction (Todd and Baroutian 2017)
	Resveratrol and antioxidants	Heat and enzymatic treatments (Averilla et al. 2019)
	Phytochemicals	Homogenizer assisted extraction (Eyiz, Tontul, and Turker 2020)
	Anthocyanins	Ultrasound-assisted techniques (Bonfigli et al. 2017), Solid/liquid extraction with aqueous ionic solutions (Lima et al. 2017)
	Proanthocyanidins	Aqueous two-phase extraction (Ran et al. 2019)
	Oil	Soxhlet and ultrasound extraction techniques (Lopes de Menezes et al. 2018), Supercritical fluid extraction (Coelho et al. 2018; Duba and Fiori 2019)
Apple by-products	Polyphenols	Sonication and maceration (Ranjha et al. 2020), Microwave-assisted extraction (Casazza, Pettinato, and Perego 2020)
	Phenolic extraction	Ultrasound treatment (Wang et al. 2018)
	Bioactive compounds	Pressurized liquids coupled on-line with solid-phase extraction (da Silva et al. 2020)
	Antioxidants	Supercritical fluid extraction (Ferrentino et al. 2018)
	Lignin	Precipitation with acidification (de França Serpa et al. 2020)
	Pectin	Ultrasound-assisted extraction (Dranca and Oroian 2019), Natural deep eutectic solvents pretreatment and hot water extraction (M. Chen and Lahaye 2021), Organic acid extraction (Cho et al. 2019), Microwave-assisted extraction, enzyme-assisted extraction, and enzyme-assisted extraction – ultrasound treatment (Dranca, Vargas, and Oroian 2020)
	Oils	Supercritical fluid and Soxhlet techniques (Ferrentino et al. 2020)
	Simultaneous extraction of oil and proteins	Ultrasonic pretreatment followed by three phase partitioning (Panadare, Gondaliya, and Rathod 2020)

Table 3. The summary for extraction of some value-added ingredients from by-products on a large scale.

Types of by-products	Value added products	Extraction methods	Scale	References
Orange pomace	Aqueous antioxidant/antimicrobial extracts	Vacuum microwave assisted extraction	Real industrial scale	(Petrotos et al. 2021)
Potato waste	Rhamnogalacturonan I	Enzymatic procedure	Laboratory and large-scale	(Byg et al. 2012)
Grape canes	Phenolic compounds	Maceration at high tempearture (80 °C)	750 L pilot-plant reactor	(Escobar-Avello et al. 2021)
Grape pomace	Polyphenols	High voltage electrical discharges	At laboratory (1 L) and pilot (35 L) scales	(Boussetta et al. 2012)
Grape stalks	Polyphenols	Batch and flow ultrasound-assisted extraction	In a 15 L reactor	(Grillo et al. 2020)
Grape seed	Oil	Supercritical fluid extraction	At laboratory (0.29 L) and pilot (5.15 L) scales	(Prado et al. 2012)
Grapefruit peel	Essential oil	Twin-screw extruder	Pilot- scale twin-screw extruder	(Trujillo-Juárez et al. 2021)
Apple pomace	Polyphenols	Ultrasound-assisted extraction	Large scale (maximal capacity of 1 L)	(Pingret et al. 2012)

Table 4. Market size and market prize of selected high value ingredients (Teigiserova, Hamelin, and Thomsen 2019).

Selected value-added ingredients	Market size (Billion US$)	Price (US$/Kg)
Colorants	The smallest market size: 1.2 (Carotenoids)- 1.7 (Food colors)	The highest market prize: 4,677 (β-carotene)- 46,772 (Lycopene)
Enzymes	4- 4.4	90 (Cellulose)- 2,479 (Laccase)
Organic acids	The biggest market size: 11.4-18	The lowest market prize: 1-1.3 (Citric acid)

Table 5. Comparison of advantages and disadvantages of innovative and green extraction procedures for extraction of bioactive compounds mostly in comparison with traditional extraction procedures.

Extraction procedure	Advantages	Disadvantages	Recommended compounds	References
Supercritical fluid extraction	High extraction yield Fast extraction rate Absence of solvent and toxic residue in the final product Recyclability and reusing of supercritical fluid CO2 (the most used supercritical solvent) is inert, non-flammable, non-corrosive, nontoxic and safe for humans and the environment Preservation of the bioactive compounds from high temperature and atmospheric oxidation Combination with ultrasound or pulsed electric fields could result in a lower processing cost and higher efficiency	CO2 is a nonpolar compound and, thus, not appropriate for extraction of polar molecules Not appropriate for a lot of pharmaceutical and drug samples Expensive system and thermodynamically complicated Necessity of large capital investment The industrial scale-up is complex	Polyphenols, carotenoids, phytosterols, flavonoids, volatile compounds, fatty acids, and sugars	(Jiménez-Moreno et al. 2020; C. G. Pereira and Meireles 2010; Rodríguez García and Raghavan 2021; Sagar et al. 2018; Silva, Rocha-Santos, and Duarte 2016; Uwineza and Waśkiewicz 2020)
Microwave-assisted extraction	Rapid extraction process Increased extraction yield Lower solvent consumption Environmentally and human-friendly technique High selectivity and improved quality of desired extracts Cost-effective Simply operable and economically feasible compared to the supercritical fluid extraction Requires lower energy than the conventional methods Eco-friendliness Distinguished decrease in temperature gradients and equipment size	Expensive equipment at industrial scale Unsuitable for non-polar or heat-sensitive compounds Necessity of careful controlling and optimization of method and parameter to effectively extract the compounds of interest	For fast extraction of polyphenols, flavonoids, phenolics, carotenoids, pectin, oils and proteins	(Azmir et al. 2013; Bagade and Patil 2021; Jiménez-Moreno et al. 2020; Mohan et al. 2020; Rodríguez García and Raghavan 2021; Sagar et al. 2018)
Ultrasound-assisted extraction	Improved extraction yield Reduced extraction time Low energy consumption Low chemical usage Suitable for heat-sensitive ingredients due to operation at lower temperatures than Soxhlet	No compound selectivity during the extraction Generation of free radicals at high sonication powers High ultrasonic power can destroy the interest compounds and low ultrasonic power may result in low yield Generation of heat with an increase of power or time Thus, right optimization in ultrasound parameters (power, frequency, etc.) and system geometry is required. Difficult scaling up for industrial applications	Phenolics, carotenoids, lipids, chlorophyll and polysaccharides	(Dassoff et al. 2021; Jiménez-Moreno et al. 2020; Mohan et al. 2020; Rodríguez García and Raghavan 2021; Sagar et al. 2018)
Pressurized liquid extraction	Reduced extraction time and required solvent volumes compared to conventional techniques Good potential alternative of supercritical fluid extraction for polar compounds An eco-friendly extraction process Improving the mass transfer rates and, thus, high extraction yield Possibility to increase the temperature of solvent more than its standard boiling point	High equipment cost Possibility of processing very limited amount of samples and, thus, inappropriate for samples with a very low concentration of the desired compound Not appropriate for processing thermolabile substances High pressure needed Expensive equipment Difficulty of equipment maintenance	Phytochemicals and polyphenols	(Jiménez-Moreno et al. 2020; Mohan et al. 2020; Rodríguez García and Raghavan 2021; Sagar et al. 2018)
Pulsed electric field	High extraction yield Short extrcaction time Low energy consumption Working at low temperature and, thus, preservation of heat-sensitive compounds Possibility of application in continuous approach in large scale Less environmental influence in comparison with Soxhlet	Necessity of redesigning or improving the existing systems to obtain higher stability and safety High maintenance cost Process and treatment parameters should be accurately maintained and controlled Necessity of development a cost-effective system with satisfactory electrical field strength and limited electrochemical reactions	Phytosterols, polyphenols, anthocyanins and β-carotene	(Jiménez-Moreno et al. 2020; Rodríguez García and Raghavan 2021; Sagar et al. 2018; Yan, He, and Xi 2017)
Enzyme-assisted extraction	Suitable to extract bound compounds High extraction rate and yield More reaction specificity Being eco-friendly due to less energy consumption, using water as a solvent and mild operation conditions such as room temperature Generally improving the quality of the extract	High cost of enzyme for large sample volumes Not practicable at industrial scale because of the sensitivity and complicated behavior of enzymes Necessity of optimization of process parameters such as pH, moisture content, temperature, time and enzyme concentration for each specific process and bioactive compounds	Bounded phytochemicals, carotenoids (especially lycopene), phenolics and oils	(Jiménez-Moreno et al. 2020; Mohan et al. 2020; Rodríguez García and Raghavan 2021; Sagar et al. 2018)
High-voltage electrical discharge or Electrohydrodynamic (EHD)	Low energy consumption in comparison with other novel extraction technologies High extraction efficiency low required solvent Short extraction time Low extraction temperature and, thus, suitable for heat-sensitive compounds High quality of extracted ingredients	Less selectivity in comparison with pulsed electric field Feasibility at pilot or industrial levels is unknown	Polyphenols, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, bioactive compounds and β-carotene	(Dastjerdi, Nourani, and Dinani 2022; Deng, Ju, and Xi 2018; Maher, Taghian Dinani, and Shahram 2020; Sagar et al. 2018; Salehi and Taghian Dinani 2020; Shahram and Taghian Dinani 2019; Yan et al. 2018)

Table 6. Fortification of food products with the extracts from fruit and vegetable by-products.

Fruit and vegetable by-products	Best percentage(s)	Fortified food products	Nutrients being fortified	References
Grape extract	1%	Yogurt	Phenolic compounds	(Karaaslan et al. 2011)
Grape seed extract	2.5%	Chinese steamed bread	Polyphenolic compounds	(Luo et al. 2018)
Grape seed extract	50-100 ppm gallic acid equivalents	Yoghurt	Polyphenols	(Chouchouli et al. 2013)
Grape seed extract	300, 600 and 1000 mg/ 500 g bread	Bread	Antioxidants	(Peng et al. 2010)
Grape seed extract	0.1-0.15%	Traditional yogurt	Antioxidants	(Kavak and Akdenİz 2019)
Dried grape peel extract	1.00 %	Stirred yogurt	Polyphenolics	(Yadav et al. 2016)
Extract of tomato processing by-products	400 ppm	Traditional Tunisian butter	Antioxidants such as lycopene and phenolics	(Abid et al. 2017)
Carrot extract	10.88%	Pizza cheese	Carotenoids	(Motevalizadeh et al. 2018)
Encapsulated carrot waste extract	2.5 and 5%	Yogurt	Carotenoids	(Šeregelj et al. 2021)
Orange peel extract powder	0.5-1.0 %	Ghee (butter oil)	Antioxidants	(Asha et al. 2015)
Apple pomace extract	77 and 130 mg/l	Cider	Phenolic compounds	(Benvenutti et al. 2019)
Apple skin extract	1 or 2%	Milk	Polyphenols	(Shinde, Brooks, and Sun-Waterhouse 2015)

Table 7. Fortification of food products with direct application of fruit and vegetable by-products.

Fruit and vegetable by-products	Best percentage(s)	Fortified food products	Nutrients being fortified	References
Grape pomace	2%	Probiotic fermented goat milk	Phenolic compounds	(Dos Santos et al. 2017)
Grape juice residue	2.5%, 5.0% and 10.0%	Ice cream	Phenolic compounds	(Vital et al. 2018)
Grape pomace powder	1.6%	Semi-hard and hard cheeses	Polyphenol content	(Marchiani, Bertolino, Ghirardello, et al. 2016)
Grape pomace skins	5-10%	Muffins	Total dietary fiber mainly soluble dietary fiber	(Bender et al. 2017)
Grape pomace flour	6%	Wheat bread	Phenolic compounds	(Sporin et al. 2018)
Wine grape pomace powder	5%	Cookies	Phenolic compounds, flavonoid and anthocyanin	(Maner, Sharma, & Banerjee et al. 2017)
Grape must lees	1-4%	Ice creams	Dietary fiber	(Ayar et al. 2018)
Grape pomace powder	1, 3 and 5%	Yoghurt	Bioactive components	(Demirkol and Tarakci 2018)
Grape skin flours	6%	Yogurt	Polyphenolic compounds	(Marchiani, Bertolino, Belviso, et al. 2016)
Red and white wine grape pomace; tomato peel	5-10%	Primosale cheese	Dietary fibers and bioactive compounds	(Costa et al. 2018)
Flours from red and white grape pomace and tomato peel	5%	Spreadable cheese	Phenolic content, flavonoids, and fibers	(Lucera et al. 2018)
Tomato processing by-products	400 ppm	Traditional Tunisian butter	Lycopene and phenolics	(Abid et al. 2017)
Apple by-products	15%	Cookies	Fibers and ash	(Toledo et al. 2017)
Apple pomace	0.5-3%	Ice creams	Dietary fiber	(Ayar et al. 2018)
Orange residues flour	12.5%	Cakes	Dietary fiber	(Oliveira et al. 2016)
Carrot pomace	8%	Cookies	Dietary fiber and carotenoids	(Nagarajaiah and Prakash 2015)

Figure 3. Simultaneous extraction of polyphenols and fibers during mild-acidic extraction of protein from by-products (Kammerer et al. 2014).

Figure 4. A proposal for increasing the usage of fruit and vegetable by-products and increasing the profits of value-added ingredients extraction process.

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