Correlates of Early Handwriting: Differential Patterns for Girls and Boys

Figures & data

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of all measures.

	M	SD	Range	Skewness	Kurtosis
Fine motor skills	30.0	4.90	18–40	−.33	−.40
Visuomotor integration	26.02	8.26	8.00–45.00	.11	−.25
Early handwriting
Legibility (sum score)	15.29	6.93	2–32	.39	.44
Fluency (NIV)	5.04	2.15	1.87–12.33	.80	.33
Time on-paper (seconds)	87.72	28.70	39.28–164.02	.69	−.36
Time off-paper (seconds)	150.19	537.91	37.72–319.60	.59	.53
Pauses (number)	15.19	12.94	0–56	1.29	1.32
Executive Functions
Inhibition (accuracy)	.92	.08	.65–1.0	−1.45	1.67
Shifting (accuracy)	.84	.08	.53–1.0	−.82	1.36
Working memory (correct trials)	6.39	3.80	0–15	.19	−.73

NIV = Number of inversions in velocity.

Table 2. A MANOVA testing differences between girls (n = 54) and boys (n = 64).

	Girls		Boys		MANOVA
	M	SD	M	SD	F	p	ηp^2
Fine motor skills	31.52	4.45	28.67	4.92	10.70	001	.078
Visuomotor integration	27.70	7.80	24.59	8.43	4.27	.041	.034
Early handwriting
Legibility (sum score)	17.57	7.03	13.36	6.27	11.84	<.001	.085
Fluency (NIV)	5.26	2.09	4.86	2.19	1.00	.320
Time (composite)	−.16	2.49	.13	2.78	.35	.556
Executive Functions
Inhibition (accuracy)	.92	.06	.91	.10	.94	.334
Shifting (accuracy)	.86	.07	.83	.09	3.57	.062
Working memory (correct trials)	6.22	3.79	6.53	3.83	.19	.663

NIV = Number of inversions in velocity. Time = Composite score of handwriting time (sum of z-variables of time on and off-paper, and pauses). η_p² = Partial Eta squared.

Table 3. Pearson correlations on the overall sample (n = 118).

Measures	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
1 Fine motor skills	-
2 Visuomotor integration	.55**	-
3 Handwriting legibility	.35**	.44**	-
4 Handwriting fluency	−.14	−.23*	−.04	-
5 Handwriting time	−.18*	−.28**	−.29**	.70**	-
6 Inhibition	.24*	.29**	.17	−.05	−.03	-
7 Shifting	.07	.17	.27**	−.10	−.29**	.33**	-
8 Working memory	.08	.24**	.00	−.20*	−.23*	.12	.23	-

*p < .05; **p < .01.

Table 4. Pearson correlations separate for girls (n = 54) below the diagonal, and boys (n = 64) above the diagonal.

Measures	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
1 Fine motor skills	-	.48**	.13 ^a	−.03	−.06	.27*	−.02	.12
2 Visuomotor integration	.60**	-	.27*	−.15	−.15	.34**	−.06	.27*
3 Handwriting legibility	.47** ^a	.56**	-	−.04	−.19	.08	.07^a	−.08
4 Handwriting fluency	−.37**	−.40**	−.11	-	.72**	−.09	−.02	−.22
5 Handwriting time	−.35**	−.47**	−.39**	.71**	-	−.01	−.23	−.22
6 Inhibition	.12	.17	.27	.04	−.04	-	.25	.13
7 Shifting	.10	.38*	.44**^a	−.23	−.36*	.50**	-	.15
8 Working memory	.06	.24	.12	−.17	−.25	.10	.33*	-

^a = The Fisher’s z-test revealed significant different correlation coefficients for girls (below the diagonal) and boys (above the diagonal).

*p < .05; **p < .01.

Data availability statement

The author confirms that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and its supplementary materials.