Police and procedural justice: perceptions of young people with mental illness

Figures & data

Table 1. Descriptive statistics, continuous variables. Higher values indicate higher levels of the variable, except for Relative Socio-economic Disadvantage decile, where higher values indicate areas of less relative disadvantage. For further information on variable construction, see Appendix 1.

Variable	Mean	SD	Min	Max	Median	% missing
Perception of procedural justice policing for youth (PJPY)	2.336	0.752	1	4	2.25	0.89%
Age	18.42	3.139	14	25	18	0%
Religiosity	2.198	1.582	1	6	1	0.54%
Respect for authority	2.435	0.842	1	4	2	0.16%
Parental emotional support	3.536	1.238	1	5	4	0.44%
Self-control	2.890	0.520	1	4	2.889	0.13%
Victimisation	1.819	1.493	0	7	2	0.03%
Delinquent peers	1.216	1.038	0	5	1	0.22%
Delinquency	0.890	1.505	0	13	0	0.16%
Relative wealth	3.670	1.530	1	7	4	0.10%
Neighbourhood disorder	1.635	0.682	1	4	1.4	0.13%
Neighbourhood social cohesion & trust	2.422	0.642	1	4	2.333	0.13%
Neighbourhood attitude to diversity	3.285	0.664	1	4	3.333	0.41%
Relative Socio-economic Disadvantage decile	6.502	2.728	1	10	7	3.53%

Table 2. Descriptive statistics, categorical variables.

Variable	Response category	%	% missing
Mental health condition	Yes No	33.96% 66.04%	1.27%
Gender	Cis female Cis male Trans* & gender diverse	40.42% 51.89% 7.69%	0.19%
Heterosexual	Yes No	48.83% 51.17%	0.35%
Perceived as Australian	Yes No	72.70% 27.30%	0.25%
Other disability	Yes No	23.18% 76.82%	1.27%
Drug use	Yes No	34.41% 65.59%	0.03%
Police contact	Yes No	7.66% 92.34%	0.22%
Student	Yes No	75.24% 24.76%	0.10%
Employed	Yes No	50.145 49.86%	0.10%
Looking for work	Yes No	19.44% 80.56%	0.10%
Remoteness	Major Cities of Australia Inner Regional Australia Outer Regional Australia Remote Australia Very Remote Australia	70.74% 20.33% 7.93% 0.76% 0.24%	3.50%
State	Queensland New South Wales Victoria Tasmania South Australia Western Australia ACT Northern Territory	29.01% 24.91% 21.07% 3.78% 7.18% 10.74% 2.67% 0.64%	0%

Table 3. Results from OLS regression model predicting perceptions of procedural justice policing for youth.

	b	β		se	t	p
Mental health condition	−0.066	−0.042	*	0.029	−2.274	0.023
Gender (ref: Cis male)
Cis female	−0.094	−0.061	**	0.029	−3.276	0.001
Trans* & gender diverse	−0.189	−0.067	***	0.050	−3.788	0.000
Not heterosexual	−0.111	−0.074	***	0.029	−3.857	0.000
Not seen as Australian	−0.064	−0.038	*	0.028	−2.261	0.024
Other disability	−0.003	−0.002		0.032	−0.105	0.916
Age	−0.011	−0.045	*	0.005	−2.133	0.033
Religiosity	0.015	0.032		0.008	1.850	0.064
Respect for authority	0.226	0.252	***	0.017	13.168	0.000
Parental emotional support	0.031	0.050	**	0.011	2.819	0.005
Self-control	0.070	0.049	*	0.028	2.531	0.011
Victimisation	−0.023	−0.045	*	0.010	−2.300	0.022
Delinquent peers	−0.040	−0.056	**	0.014	−2.863	0.004
Any drug use	−0.113	−0.071	***	0.031	−3.647	0.000
Delinquency	−0.006	−0.012		0.010	−0.603	0.547
Police contact	−0.011	−0.004		0.054	−0.201	0.841
Relative wealth	0.023	0.046	*	0.009	2.455	0.014
Student	−0.002	−0.001		0.034	−0.059	0.953
Employed	0.042	0.028		0.028	1.520	0.129
Looking for work	0.042	0.022		0.032	1.292	0.197
Neighbourhood disorder	−0.053	−0.048	*	0.021	−2.447	0.014
Neighbourhood social cohesion & trust	0.100	0.086	***	0.022	4.623	0.000
Neighbourhood attitude to diversity	0.099	0.087	***	0.020	4.997	0.000
Relative Socio-economic Disadvantage decile	−0.009	−0.034		0.006	−1.637	0.102
Remoteness (ref: Major Cities of Australia)
Inner Regional Australia	0.024	0.013		0.038	0.630	0.529
Outer Regional Australia	−0.036	−0.013		0.051	−0.715	0.475
Remote Australia	0.260	0.030	*	0.127	2.045	0.041
Very Remote Australia	−0.004	0.000		0.334	−0.013	0.990
State (ref: Queensland)
New South Wales	−0.002	−0.001		0.034	−0.072	0.943
Victoria	0.134	0.073	***	0.036	3.732	0.000
Tasmania	0.146	0.037	*	0.067	2.162	0.031
South Australia	0.109	0.037	*	0.052	2.109	0.035
Western Australia	0.016	0.007		0.043	0.377	0.706
ACT	0.115	0.025		0.081	1.422	0.155
Northern Territory	0.101	0.010		0.200	0.503	0.615
Constant	1.166		***	0.182	6.421	0.000
N	2912
F(35, 2876)	26.877	***
R^2	0.242
Adjusted R^2	0.232

* p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01 *** p < 0.001.

Table A1. Variables used in the analysis.

Variable	Description & coding
Perception of procedural justice policing for youth (PJPY)	Mean index of four items, measured on a 4-point Likert scale: ‘In your opinion, how often do police do the following things?  … The police treat young people with respect  … The police make fair decisions when dealing with young people  … The police explain their decisions and actions to young people  … The police listen to young people’ Response options: Almost never (1); Sometimes (2); Often (3); Almost always (4) Index was only created if respondent answered all four items. Cronbach’s alpha = 0.8969
Mental health condition	‘Do you have a disability? (Select all that apply to you)  … Mental health condition’ Yes = 1, No = 0
Gender	Cross categorisation of responses to the following two items: ‘What sex were you assigned at birth (what was put on your birth certificate)?  … Female  … Male  … Intersex  … Something else’ ‘What is your current gender identity?’ [open-ended item] Responses were coded as cis male or cis female if sex corresponded with gender (or if the respondent only answered sex and did not answer gender). Responses were coded as trans* & gender diverse if sex did not correspond with gender, or if a specific non-cis gender was specified (such as a gender, questioning, non-binary etc.).
Heterosexual	Coded from responses to: ‘Do you consider yourself to be:  … Heterosexual or straight  … Gay or lesbian  … Bisexual  … Prefer to self-identify as … ’ Responses were collapsed into Yes = 1 if respondent selected Heterosexual, No = 0 otherwise.
Perceived as Australian	Coded from responses to: ‘Which ethnicity do you think other people (who don’t know you) mostly see you as?’ Response categories: Australian; Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander; Pacific Islander; Māori; New Zealander; South-East Asian (e.g. Vietnamese, Singaporean, Indonesian etc.); North-East Asian (e.g. Chinese, Korean, Japanese etc.); South/Central Asian (e.g. Indian, Bangladeshi, Pakistani etc.); Middle Eastern; European; North American; South American; African; They mostly see me as (write in). Responses were collapsed into Yes = 1 if respondent selected Australian, No = 0 otherwise.
Other disability	Coded from responses to: ‘Do you have a disability? (Select all that apply to you)  … Chronic medical condition  … Intellectual disability  … Learning disability  … Neurological condition (incl. ASD, ADHD)  … Physical disability  … Sensory disability’ Responses were collapsed into Yes = 1 if respondent answered Yes to any of the items, No = 0 otherwise. Index was only created if respondent answered at least one item
Age	‘How old are you?’ Respondents could only complete the survey if they entered an integer between 14 & 25 inclusive.
Religiosity	Coded from responses to: ‘How important to you (personally) is religion in your everyday life?’ Response options: Very important (1); Quite important (2); A bit important (3); A bit unimportant (4); Quite unimportant (5); Very unimportant (6) Responses were reverse coded to range from Very unimportant = 1 to Very important = 6
Respect for authority	Coded from responses to: ‘How wrong do you think is it for someone of your age to do the following?  … Lie, disobey or talk back to older people or people in authority’ Response options: Very wrong (1); Wrong (2); A little wrong (3); Not wrong at all (4) Responses were reverse coded to range from Not wrong at all = 1 to Very wrong = 4
Parental emotional support	Coded from responses to: ‘How well do you get along with your parent(s)? (Please indicate how much you agree or disagree with the following statements)  … I can easily get emotional support and care from my parents’ Response options: Strongly agree (1); Agree (2); Neither (3); Disagree (4); Strongly disagree (5) Responses were reverse coded to range from Strongly disagree = 1 to Strongly agree = 4
Self control scale	Mean index of nine items, measured on a 4-point Likert scale: ‘How much do you agree or disagree with the following statements?  … I act on the spur of the moment without stopping to think  … I do whatever brings me pleasure here and now, even at the cost of some future goal  … I’m more concerned with what happens to me in the short run than in the long run  … I like to test myself every now and then by doing something a little risky  … Sometimes I will take a risk just for the fun of it  … Excitement and adventure are more important to me than security  … I try to look out for myself first, even if it means making things difficult for other people  … If things I do upset people, it’s their problem not mine  … I will try to get the things I want even when I know it’s causing problems for other people’ Response options: Completely agree (1); Somewhat agree (2); Somewhat disagree (3); Completely disagree (4) Higher values of the scale indicate greater self control. Index was created if respondent answered at least one item, missing items were disregarded in calculations. Cronbach’s alpha = 0.7738
Victimisation variety lifetime prevalence (LTP)	Summative index of seven items, measured on a Yes = 1/No = 0 scale: ‘Did any of the following things ever happen to you?  … Someone wanted you to give them money or something else (like a watch, shoes, mobile phone) and threatened you if you refused  … Someone hit you violently or hurt you – so much that you needed to see a doctor  … Something was stolen from you (such as a book, money, mobile phone, sport equipment, bicycle …)  … Someone threatened or verbally abused you because of your religion, the language you speak, the colour of your skin, your social or ethnic background, your gender or sexuality, or for similar reasons.  … Someone committed physical violence against you because of your religion, the language you speak, the colour of your skin, your social or ethnic background, your gender or sexuality, or for similar reasons.  … Someone used social media, the internet, or mobile phone to bully, threaten or humiliate you  … Has your parent or step-parent ever hit you with an object, punched or kicked you forcefully, or beat you up?’ Index was created if respondent answered at least one item, missing items were treated as 0. Cronbach’s alpha = 0.5574
Delinquent peers variety	Summative index of five items, measured on a Yes = 1/No = 0 scale: ‘People sometimes engage in illegal activities. How many friends do you have who have done any of the following? I have friends who have...  … Used soft or hard drugs (like weed, hash, ecstasy, speed, heroin or coke).  … Stolen things from a shop or department store  … Entered a building without permission to steal something  … Threatened somebody with a weapon or beaten someone up, just to get their money or other things  … Beaten someone up or hurt someone badly with a weapon’ Index was created if respondent answered at least one item, missing items were treated as 0. Cronbach’s alpha = 0.5668
Any drug use LTP	Coded from the responses to the following three items: ‘Have you ever … ?  … Used cannabis (weed/marijuana/hash)?  … Used ecstasy, LSD, speed, amphetamines or similar drugs?  … Used heroin, cocaine, or crack?’ Coded as Yes = 1 if respondent answered Yes to any of the three items, No = 0 otherwise. Index was created if respondent answered at least one item. Cronbach’s alpha = 0.6604
Delinquency variety LTP	Summative index of thirteen items, measured on a Yes = 1/No = 0 scale: ‘Have you ever in your life …   … Painted on a wall, train, or bus (graffiti)?  … Damaged something on purpose, such as a bus shelter, a window, a car, or a seat in the bus or train?  … Stolen something from a shop or department store?  … Broken into a building to steal something?  … Stolen a bicycle?  … Stolen a motorbike or car?  … Stolen something off or from a car?  … Used a weapon, force, or threat of force to get money or things from someone?  … Stolen something from a person without force or threat?  … Carried a weapon, such as a knife, gun, stick, or chain?  … Taken part in a group ­fight in a public place?  … Beaten someone up or hurt someone with a weapon (including a knife or a heavy object) so badly that they were injured?  … Sold any drugs or helped someone sell drugs?’ Index was created if respondent answered at least one item, missing items were treated as 0. Cronbach’s alpha = 0.7197
Police contact LTP	‘Have you ever had contact with the police because you yourself did something illegal?’ Yes = 1, No = 0
Relative wealth	‘If you compare yourself with other people of your age: Do you have more, the same, or less money (of your own) to spend?’ Response options: Much less (1); Less (2); Somewhat less (3); The same (4); Somewhat more (5); More (6); Much more (7)
Student	Coded from responses to: ‘What is your occupation? (select all that apply to you)’ Response options: Studying (high school) full-time; Studying (high school) part-time; Studying (post-secondary) full-time; Studying (post-secondary) part-time; Working full-time; Working part-time or casual; Looking for work; Caring for a family member; Not able to work because of disability; Something else (write in) Responses were collapsed into Yes = 1 if respondent selected any of the Studying options, No = 0 otherwise. Responses were only coded if at least one option was selected.
Employed	Coded from responses to: ‘What is your occupation? (select all that apply to you)’ (see above for response options) Responses were collapsed into Yes = 1 if respondent selected Working full-time or Working part-time or casual, No = 0 otherwise. Responses were only coded if at least one option was selected.
Looking for work	Coded from responses to: ‘What is your occupation? (select all that apply to you)’ (see above for response options) Responses were collapsed into Yes = 1 if respondent selected Looking for work, No = 0 otherwise. Responses were only coded if at least one option was selected.
Neighbourhood disorder	Mean index of five items, measured on a 4-point Likert scale: ‘How much do you agree or disagree with the following statements about your neighbourhood?  … There is a lot of crime in my neighbourhood  … There is a lot of drug selling in my neighbourhood  … There is a lot of fighting in my neighbourhood  … There are a lot of empty and abandoned buildings in my neighbourhood  … There is a lot of graffiti in my neighbourhood’ Response options: Completely agree (1); Somewhat agree (2); Somewhat disagree (3); Completely disagree (4) Responses were reverse coded to range from Completely disagree = 1 to Completely agree = 4. Higher values on the index indicate higher levels of neighbourhood disorder. Index was created if respondent answered at least one item, missing items were disregarded in calculations. Cronbach’s alpha = 0.8583
Neighbourhood social cohesion & trust	Mean index of six items, measured on a 4-point Likert scale: ‘How much do you agree or disagree with the following statements about your neighbourhood?  … Many of my neighbours know me  … People in my neighbourhood often do things together  … People around here are willing to help their neighbours  … This is a close-knit neighbourhood  … People in this neighbourhood can be trusted  … People in this neighbourhood generally get along well with each other’ Response options: Completely agree (1); Somewhat agree (2); Somewhat disagree (3); Completely disagree (4) Responses were reverse coded to range from Completely disagree = 1 to Completely agree = 4. Higher values on the index indicate higher levels of social cohesion and trust. Index was created if respondent answered at least one item, missing items were disregarded in calculations. Cronbach’s alpha = 0.8353
Neighbourhood attitude to diversity	Mean index of three items, measured on a 4-point Likert scale: ‘How much do you agree or disagree with the following statements about your neighbourhood?  … People in my neighbourhood prefer that residents in the area are mostly white  … People in my neighbourhood do not like having people from other ethnic groups as neighbours  … Some people in my neighbourhood have been left out of social events because of their skin colour, ethnicity, race or religion’ Response options: Completely agree (1); Somewhat agree (2); Somewhat disagree (3); Completely disagree (4). Higher values on the index indicate more positive attitude to diversity. Index was created if respondent answered at least one item, missing items were disregarded in calculations. Cronbach’s alpha = 0.7532
Relative Socio-economic Disadvantage decile	Australian Bureau of Statistics Socio-Economic Indices for Areas (SEIFA) Index of Relative Socio-economic Disadvantage decile, matched to respondent’s residential postcode. Higher values indicate areas of less relative socio-economic disadvantage.
Remoteness	Australian Bureau of Statistics Remoteness Areas, matched to the respondent’s residential postcode, using a Mesh Block population weighted correspondence file. Categories: Major cities of Australia; Inner regional Australia; Outer regional Australia; Remote Australia; Very remote Australia. Where postcodes crossed multiple remoteness area categories, the category that contained the majority of the population of the postcode was used.
State	‘Which state or territory do you live in?’ Response options: Queensland; New South Wales; Victoria; Tasmania; South Australia; Western Australia; ACT; Northern Territory.