What has changed and why: the transformation and (de)legitimisation of post-COVID policing in Hong Kong and Taiwan

Figures & data

Table 1. Confirmed COVID-19 cases in multiple countries and places as of 31 December 2021.

Country/ Place	Cumulative COVID-19 cases as of 31 December 2021	Confirmed cases per 100 population
Taiwan	17,029	0.07
Hong Kong	12,650	0.17
South Korea	635,253	1.24
Japan	1,733,307	1.37
Germany	7,109,182	8.55
United States	54,907,717	16.67
United Kingdom	13,010,853	19.17

Sources: The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (2021), Census and Statistics Department (2021), Taiwan Centers for Disease Control (2021), Statistical Bureau (2023), Johns Hopkins Coronavirus Resource Center (2023).

Table 2. Comparison of anti-pandemic policies in Hong Kong and Taiwan during the COVID-19 crisis.

Key anti-epidemic measures	Hong Kong	Taiwan
Border closure	Closure of the majority of boundary control points, cancellation of most passenger flights, and cessation of transit passengers.	Cancellation of flights, cessation of inbound visitors, with entry permitted only for Taiwan residents.
Lockdown	Suspension of schooling, shift to online lessons, closure of public amenity facilities, prohibition of mass gatherings.	Suspension of schooling and shift to online lessons.
Social distancing	Mandatory mask-wearing, tightening/relaxing of social distancing measures, limitation of business hours, and restrictions on dine-in patrons at restaurants, accompanied by fluctuations in case numbers.	Mandatory mask-wearing, but no lockdown arrangements for dining and public facilities due to zero/scattered infections.
Home/ hotel/ centralised camp quarantine	Imposed 7–21 days mandatory quarantine on all inbound passengers from mainland China and overseas.	For all inbound returning residents.
Vaccine pass	Gradually introduced compulsory full 3-dose vaccination with apps tracking for all dine-in patrons.	None.
Returning to normalcy	December 2022: Quarantine relaxed to 0 + 3 days in September 2022, with all requirements cancelled in January 2023 following the Beijing authorities’ decision to lift quarantine measures entirely.	January 2023.

Sources: The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (2023), Ministry of Health and Welfare (2023).

Table 3. Establishment and actual strength of the Hong Kong Police in December 2017 and 2022.

Establishment (actual strength)	2017	2022	Vacancies in 2022
Superintendents or above	446 (464)	479 (443)	36 (7.5%)
Inspectors	2569 (2387)	2842 (2395)	447 (15.72%)
Junior police officers	26837 (26487)	29888 (24452)	5436 (18.1%)
Civilian officers	4563 (4312)	4737 (4082)	655 (13%)
Auxiliary	4501 (3124)	4501 (3117)	1324 (29.4%)
Total strength	38416 (36774)	42047 (34689)
Annual expenditure in HKD million	17855	23330

Sources: Hong Kong Police Force (2023), Civil Service Bureau (2023).

Table 4. Establishment and strength of the Taiwan Police in 2017 and 2022.

Strength	2017	2022
Superintendents	300	331
Inspectors	38130	38075
Junior Police Officers	24860	30706
Civilian officers	636	429
Total Strength	63926	69541

Source: National Police Agency, Ministry of the Interior (2024).

Table 5. Comparison of policing approaches in Hong Kong and Taiwan during the COVID crisis.

	Hong Kong	Taiwan
Organisation and operation	The newly established Commission of National Security in Hong Kong, chaired by the Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. The National Security Division in the Hong Kong Police, comprising 4,000 personnel, has been reported. Additionally, efforts to strengthen police publicity through platforms like Facebook, Weibo, and YouTube channels have been noted. The relaxation of academic and language requirements, as well as the length of residence requirements for recruit police constables. Recentralisation and coordination of police propaganda.	The police department was part of a task force affiliated with the centre, consisting of multiple units that coordinated anti-pandemic efforts. The centre ceased to operate after the cancellation of all anti-pandemic policies. There were no organisational or operational changes after the public health crisis.
Legislation and enforcement	Enactment of National Security Law promulgated by the National People’s Congress Standing Committee on 1 July 2020. Reactivated several ordinances for the prosecution of alleged offenses under the National Security Law, including the Crime Ordinance, Money Laundering Ordinance, and perverting the course of justice. Initiating the Basic Law Article 23 local legislation work. Regulation of crowdfunding and disinformation laws are in draft.	Debates over the introduction of legislation governing disinformation in social media remain unresolved. Emerging policing issues include the professionalism of policing, policing transparency, and accountability, as well as challenges related to cross-border telephone fraud, illegal immigrants, and workers.
Legitimisation	Low levels of public trust in the government and police persisted throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. Emphasising safeguarding national security and restoring social stability. New mission: ‘Serving Hong Kong with Honour, Duty and Loyalty’. Established Government Caring Units in districts after the ‘perfection of local governance and election systems’. Restructuring and empowerment of policing authorities with new leadership. Shifting towards internal oversight following the dissolution of autonomous civil societies.	Public satisfaction with the government and police remained at a high level (about 80%) before May 2022. General compliance with the anti-pandemic policies. Continuing to emphasise democratic policing after the crisis, including public accountability, civil society partnerships, and external oversight in policing.

Sources: Hong Kong University Public Opinion Program (2019), National Chung Cheng University Crime Research Center (2023).

Table 6. Pathway of institutionalisation: Hong Kong and Taiwan.

	Hong Kong	Taiwan
Colonial legacy	British, Royal Irish Constabulary. Highly centralised, multi-ethnic paramilitary.	Inherited from Japan’s policing model during the colonial administration from 1895 to 1945, evolving further when the Republic of China resettled from mainland China to Taiwan in 1949. Highly centralised under the Ministry of the Interior.
Evolution and legitimisation	Police-citizen segregation persisted until the 1970s. Anti-corruption efforts were initiated with the establishment of the Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC). Policing became performance-driven and procedurally transparent. Check and balance mechanisms were introduced, including internal and external oversight. After 1997, authorities from the Chief Executive and its cabinet, appointed by the Central People’s Government in Beijing, gained prominence. Emphasis was placed on professionalism, effectiveness, and efficiency, leading to transparent operations and a low crime rate. Policing was supervised by autonomous civil societies and media, with oversight from the Independent Police Complaints Council (IPCC) and court rulings. Key controversies revolved around democratic participation in policing.	The policing system evolved from colonial and authoritarian regimes. It was characterised by a coercive and control-oriented approach until the abandonment of Martial Law and the democratisation process in the 1980s. The emphasis shifted towards democratic policing after the introduction of universal suffrage in the government. Policing performance was linked to social security and included elements of democratic participation. Independent oversight was provided by autonomous civil societies and a constitutionally empowered independent oversight body. Key concerns revolved around police professionalism and neutrality.
Community policing	Segregation between the police and citizens persisted until the 1970s. In the 1970s, an anti-corruption campaign was launched, leading to the establishment of the Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC). The Police Public Relations Bureau underwent reforms to enhance communication with citizens. Community policing practices, steered by the Police headquarters, involved collaboration with District Councils, schools, and civil societies. The mission became ‘Serving the Community with Pride and Care’. Significant changes occurred after the National Security Law (NSL), and the transformation is ongoing.	Elected personnel (i.e. village chiefs) at local levels. Front-line police conduct household visits and registrations. Autonomous civil societies play a significant role.
Public satisfaction	80% or higher before 2014. Dropped to about 20% in 2019. No publicly announced figures have been available since 2020.	Remained at 70% or higher both before and after the COVID-19 pandemic.
Major controversies in policing	Policing responses to emerging social movements and protests. Cross-border policing challenges and issues. Debates surrounding legal authorities under the ‘one country, two systems’ framework. Assessment of police professionalism and neutrality.	Scrutiny of police professionalism and neutrality. Examination of social movements emerging from the integration of Hong Kong and China’s mainland economy. Controversies surrounding protest policing, particularly in balancing civil and political rights with the need for public order.

Sources: Hong Kong University Public Opinion Program (2019), National Chung Cheng University Crime Research Center (2023).

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