Examining the Commonalities and Differences Between Gamblification and Gamification: A Theoretical Perspective

Figures & data

Figure 1. Disentangling gamblification from gamification.

Table 1. Comparison of gambling and games.

	Gambling	Games, other than gambling
Activity	Gambling is characterized by risking something of value with the possibility of an ultimate real-world gain (Reber, 1995, p. 319). Gambling is mainly chosen for its means to the desired (often financial) end. The activity itself does not need to be entertaining (the prospect of winning a reward is often entertaining enough). Typically linked to outcomes within gambling games.	Games are characterized by skill-based rule systems without consequential (outside game) outcomes, characterized by voluntary involvement that is separated from the mundane reality (Caillois & Barash, 2001).
Resource transfer (stakes and rewards)	A valuable stake is usually placed as a prerequisite to partake in gambling. As such, a critical mass of participants allows to finance the expensive rewards in the first place (i.e., “Winners gain at the sole expense of losers”) (Griffiths, 1995). To leverage the motivational effect of reward uncertainty, rewards are provided based on uncertainty.	No valuable stake is usually necessary to play the game (i.e., free of charge); required contextual stakes to progress or complete a task can be earned through activities within the game.
	Predominantly objective rewards can be gained from winning or losing (e.g., acquired rewards have value outside of gambling). The legal definition of gambling in many contexts typically refers to earning rewards that can be turned into monetary payouts to the player.	Predominantly game-specific rewards from winning or losing (e.g., acquired points and badges only have contextualized value but do not have value outside of the game).
Determination of outcome	Predominantly chance-determined (i.e., uncertain or unpredictable) rewards; the gambler usually interacts only little in gambling, in that the gambler often just watches the results happening (i.e., “gambling happens to the player”).	Predominantly skill-determined rewards; substantial player-game-interaction, in that skills mainly determines the results (i.e., “the player happens to the game”).

Table 2. Example applications of gamblification and gamification.

Application contexts	Gamblification examples	Gamification examples
Commerce and marketing	Virtual goods that contain a random selection of content (e.g., loot boxes) in place of direct, known, purchases (Roethke et al., 2020) An app-based augmented reality lottery on top of regular transactions in which users receive rewards with the host company (Starbucks, 2021) Cultural and sporting events used to normalize participation in gambling through sponsorship, brand ambassadors, etc. (McMullan & Miller, 2008)	Creating a game where users can win credits or prizes based on their performance, credits can be redeemed at physical locations (e.g., KFC (Stone, 2023) Loyalty management programs (Tobon et al., 2020), for example, the service Zinrelo (Hollebeek et al., 2021)
Sustainability	Users can choose to take monetary refunds in form of lottery tickets in place of direct refunds through bottle recycling “slot” machines (Norsk Pantelotteri AS, 2023; Shen et al., 2019)	The Kukui Cup is a challenge-based event run by the University of Hawaii incorporating real and virtual world elements to provide environmental awareness and sustainability (Johnson, 2009)
Finance and banking	Digital scratch cards that incorporate chance-based monetary rewards redeemable within the digital payment system (Google, 2023) The emergence of new financial products (high-frequency stock trading, high-risk derivatives, cryptocurrencies) which are more structurally akin to gambling than traditional investment options (Andrade & Newall, 2023; Newall & Weiss-Cohen, 2022)	Investorville by Comm Bank used a gamified framework to educate customers about property investment and to model outcomes of different decisions (Aitken, 2014) Goal-based investment is used to gamify investment strategies and behavior (Sironi, 2016)
Health and well-being	Betting money to run a marathon. Achieving the goal entitles users to a share of a communal prize pot, otherwise, the stake is lost (WayBetter, 2023)	Zombies Run is an app which uses narrative to make exercise more game-like (Friman & Turtiainen, 2017), while Nike Run Club introduces social and competitive features to motivate users (Högberg et al., 2019)
Crowdfunding	Reward-based crowdfunding offers options that are linked to the reaching of milestones so that users are teased and persuaded to secure and pledge for the respective option early, although the final reward bundle is dependent on many chance-based factors beyond their control (e.g., pledging of other backers, campaign creator’s characteristics and activities) (Kickstarter, 2023)	Donation-based crowdfunding utilizes shared goals and social connections to increase trust and produce enhanced donor engagement, thereby increasing success of campaigns (Behl & Dutta, 2020; Golrang & Safari, 2021)
Social media	Social Casino Games: gambling-themed games (e.g., roulette, slots, poker) using the free-to-play model, in which players can purchase in-game resources, but cannot convert rewards/winnings to real world currencies (King et al., 2015; Macey & Kinnunen, 2020; Morgan Stanley, 2012)	Different Social Media shape user behavior through shared goals, social relatedness, reciprocity, challenges, and competition. These include “likes,” streaks, badges/awards, etc. (Hristova et al., 2021; Hristova & Lieberoth, 2021; Pellikka, 2014)
Governance	Users receive lottery tickets on top of buying bus tickets when purchasing from “lottery” ticket vending machines, used to motivate civic-minded behavior (i.e., reducing fare-dodging) (Fabbri et al., 2019) Drivers photographed obeying speed limit shared in a pot consisting of fines raised from those caught speeding. The scheme encouraged pro-social behavior via financial rewards (Dargan & Evequoz, 2015)	Idea-sharing, interacting with local administrators, etc. are used to promote civic engagement among the public and participation in policymaking. While gamification has also been used to enhance delivery of government services by increasing motivation and engagement among staff. (Hassan & Hamari, 2020)
Learning and education	Students on a university politics course can win cash prizes by successfully predicting result of US presidential election (Rice University, 2020)	Aesthetics, challenges, and rewards to increase intrinsic motivation, from individual language-learning apps, to formal learning environments (Govender & Arnedo-Moreno, 2020; Saleem et al., 2022; Toda et al., 2019)
Workplace productivity	Variable pay rates for on-demand workers, determined by opaque algorithms, result in unclear/unknowable payments when taking jobs, this is viewed as gambling by workers* (Dubal, 2023)	Uber updated their driver interface app to include more gamified elements (missions, rewards, etc.) to boost drivers’ productivity and satisfaction (Vasudevan & Chan, 2022) Objectives, goal-setting, multimedia feedback, and narrative frameworks are also common implementations aimed at increasing productivity in workplaces (Warmelink et al., 2020)

Note: *This example reflects the perceptions of the users, not the intention of those who designed the system.

Table 3. Research agenda.

Topic	Suggested research questions
Identification and classification	What gambling design elements exist and are most promising for gamblification? How can they be categorized/classified in a taxonomy?
User reactions and mechanisms	How and why does gamblification affect user experiences and engagement as well as resource transfer in contrast to gamification? What are the underlying mechanisms and theories (e.g., self-determination, flow, optimal challenges, reward uncertainty, anticipation, etc.) that can explain these effects? What characteristics of the context (i.e., moderating effects) shape the influence of gamblification on user experiences, user engagement, and resource transfer? What could be possible appropriations and workarounds (e.g., cheating)?
Uniqueness and disentanglement	How do implemented gamblification designs differ from gamification designs? How can the degree of gamblification and gamification be determined? What about the principles of gamblification (e.g., determination of outcome, context, centrality)?
Untapped potentials	How can gamblification seize the opportunity to leverage the traditional “dark sides” of gambling (e.g., repetitious behavior) in favor of users (e.g., increasing digital health in the form of psychological, financial, and physical well-being)?
Profitability and economics	How can we (statistically) determine the business success of gamblification (e.g., field, observational experiment, observational data)? How does gamblification affect user behavior and revenue/profit? Does it justify the required investments?
Ethical issues	How do users perceive the ethics of gamblified interactions? What, if any, are the long-term effects of gamblification on individuals? Should gamblified services and systems be regulated, and if so, how do they align with current regulatory systems and approaches?

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