Air Pollution and Health Studies in China—Policy Implications

Figures & data

Figure 1. Air pollution levels in 31 provincial capitals of China (annual average concentrations, μg/m³, 2001–2008). (Data source: China Environment Yearbook 2002–2009, China Environment Yearbook Press, Beijing, China.)

Figure 2. Annual PM₁₀ levels in provincial capital cities and cities directly under the jurisdiction of the central government of China (μg/m³, 2004). (Data source: China Environment Yearbook 2005, China Environment Yearbook Press, Beijing, China.)

Table 1. A comparison between the WHO Air Quality Guideline (AQG), WHO interim target (IT), and Chinese air quality standards (AQS)

	Daily Average (μg/m^3)			Annual Average (μg/m^3)
	PM10	SO2	NO2	PM10	SO2	NO2
WHO AQG	50	20	200 ^a	20	—	40
WHO IT-1	150	125	—	70	—	—
WHO IT-2	100	50	—	50	—	—
WHO IT-3	75	—	—	30	—	—
Chinese AQS—Grade 1	50	50	80	40	20	40
Chinese AQS—Grade 2	150	150	80	100	60	40
Chinese AQS—Grade 3	250	250	120	150	100	80
Note: ^a1-Hr mean.

Figure 3. The annual SO₂ emissions nationwide (million tons, 1997–2009). (Data source: Report on the State of Environment in China in 1997–2009, issued by China's Ministry of Environmental Protection.)

Figure 4. A summary of air pollution epidemiologic studies in China.

Table 2. Comparison of estimated percentage increase (and 95% confidence or posterior interval, CI) in relative risk of mortality per 10 μg/m³ increase of pollutant concentrations in Chinese air pollution short-term effects studies

			Pollutants
Cities	Study Design	Health Outcomes	PM10	SO2	NO2	O3	PM2.5
Shanghai	Time series	Total morality^11,19	0.26 (0.15, 0.37)	0.95 (0.62, 1.28)	0.97 (0.67, 1.27)	0.31 (0.04, 0.58)	0.36 (0.11, 0.61)
	Time series	Cardiovascular mortality^11,19	0.27 (0.10, 0.44)	0.91 (0.41, 1.41)	1.01 (0.55, 1.47)	0.38 (−0.04, 0.80)	0.41 (0.00, 0.82)
	Time series	Respiratory mortality^11,19	0.27 (−0.01, 0.56)	1.37 (0.51, 2.23)	1.22 (0.43, 2.01)	0.29 (−0.45, 1.03)	0.95 (0.17, 1.73)
	Time series	Total outpatient visits41	0.11 (−0.03, 0.26)	0.34 (0.06, 0.61)	0.55 (0.14, 0.97)
	Time series	Total emergency visits^41	0.01 (−0.09, 0.10)	0.17 (0.00, 0.35)	0.08 (−0.18, 0.33)
	Time series	Total hospitalizations42	0.18 (−0.15, 0.52)	0.63 (0.03, 1.23)	0.99 (0.10,1.88)
	Time series	Cardiovascular hospitalizations42	0.25 (0.00, 0.50)	0.64 (0.17, 1.11)	1.23 (0.53, 1.93)
Wuhan	Time series	Total morality^19	0.43 (0.24, 0.62)	1.19 (0.64, 1.74)	1.97 (1.31, 2.63)	0.29 (−0.05, 0.63)
	Time series	Cardiovascular mortality^19	0.57 (0.30, 0.84)	1.47 (0.69, 2.25)	2.12 (1.18, 3.06)	−0.07 (−0.53, 0.39)
	Time series	Respiratory mortality^19	0.87 (0.34, 1.41)	2.11 (0.57, 3.65)	3.68 (1.73, 5.63)	0.12 (−0.91, 1.15)
Beijing	Case crossover	Emergency room visits for cardiovascular diseases^10		1.40 (0.40, 2.40)	1.60 (0.30, 2.90)		0.50 (0.10, 0.90)
	Case crossover	Emergency room visits for hypertension43		3.70 (0.40, 7.10)	10.10 (3.8, 19.5)
Tianjin	Time series	Cardiovascular morality44	0.48 (0.23, 0.73)	0.27 (−0.13, 0.68)	1.08 (0.13, 2.04)
Shenyang	Time series	Total morality45	0.29 (0.11, 0.47)	0.24 (0.07, 0.42)
	Time series	Cardiovascular mortality45	0.36 (0.09, 0.62)	0.18 (−0.05, 0.42)
Anshan	Case crossover	Total morality46	0.24 (−0.03, 0.51)	0.27 (−0.05, 0.60)	1.30 (−0.06, 2.67)
	Case crossover	Cardiovascular mortality46	0.67 (0.29, 1.04)	0.38 (−0.06, 0.83)	2.11 (0.22, 4.00)

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