Understanding Fathers’ Involvement Relative to the Other Parent After Parental Separation

Figures & data

Table 1. Descriptive statistics.

Variable	% or M	SD	Range
Sociodemographic variables
Time since separation (months) T1	21.75	7.38	3–38
Time since separation (months) T2	46.23	7.02	28–61
Pre-separation status (common-law union)	66%	–	–
Length of pre-separation relationship (years)	10.58	4.93	1–30
Current relationship status (single) T1	58%	–	–
Current relationship status (single) T2	45%	–	–
Living with a new partner T1	32%	–	–
Living with a new partner T2	47%	–	–
Other parent living with a new partner T1	28%	–	–
Other parent living with a new partner T2	39%	–	–
Father’s age (years)	40.11	7.13	22–69
Education level High school or less	38%	–	–
College (technical or pre-university)	23%	–	–
University (undergraduate or graduate)	39%	–	–
Father’s employment status (employed or studying) T1	96%	–	–
Father’s employment status (employed or studying) T2	97%	–	–
Hours worked per week T1	40.72	7.51	10–80
Hours worked per week T2	39.95	6.29	10–70
Personal income ($) T1	68 892	55 814	0–723 746
Child’s age (years) T1	7.48	2.97	3–13
Child’s age (years) T2	9.68	3.03	4–16
Child’s age at time of separation (years)	6.12	3.02	0–13
Child’s gender (girls)	52%	–	–
Distance between residence (20 km or more) T1	20%	–	–
Distance between residence (20 km or more) T2	25%	–	–
Father’s custody type at T1 Noncustodial (0–39%)	22%	–	–
Shared custody (40–60%)	70%	–	–
Sole custody (61–100%)	8%	–	–
Father’s custody type at T2 Noncustodial (0–39%)	23%	–	–
Shared custody (40–60%)	66%	–	–
Sole custody (61–100%)	11%	–	–
Key study variables
Custody time (%) T1	48.12	14.98	0–100
Custody time (%) T2	46.70	20.67	0–100
Father involvement T1 Positive involvement activities	3.10	.55	1–5
Indirect care	2.87	.71	1–5
Decision-making	3.03	.54	1–5
Father involvement T2 Positive involvement activities	3.15	.62	1–5
Indirect care	2.90	.80	1–5
Decision-making	3.05	.62	1–5
Father’s psychological well-being T1 Satisfaction with life	6.94	2.03	0–10
Feel nervous (K6–1)	2.61	.90	1–5
Feel hopeless (K6–2)	1.92	.95	1–5
Feel so restless that you could not sit still (K6–3)	1.88	.96	1–5
Feel so sad that nothing could cheer you up (K6–4)	1.60	.86	1–5
Feel that everything was an effort (K6–5)	2.00	.94	1–5
Feel worthless (K6–6)	1.52	.86	1–5
Father’s psychological well-being T2 Satisfaction with life	7.37	1.65	0–10
Feel nervous (K6–1)	2.47	.90	1–5
Feel hopeless (K6–2)	1.75	.87	1–5
Feel so restless that you could not sit still (K6–3)	1.80	.89	1–5
Feel so sad that nothing could cheer you up (K6–4)	1.42	.91	1–5
Feel that everything was an effort (K6–5)	1.91	.91	1–5
Feel worthless (K6–6)	1.41	.73	1–5
Child’s behavioral difficulties T1 Internalizing behaviors	1.45	1.40	1–3
Externalizing behaviors	1.32	1.25	1–3
Child’s behavioral difficulties T2 Internalizing behaviors	1.49	1.40	1–3
Externalizing behaviors	1.32	1.33	1–3
Coparenting relationship T1 Support	3.96	1.85	1–7
Undermining	2.53	1.88	1–7
Endorsement	5.42	1.51	1–7
Agreement	4.78	1.62	1–7
Coparenting relationship T2 Support	3.92	1.82	1–7
Undermining	2.50	1.93	1–7
Endorsement	5.43	1.54	1–7
Agreement	4.85	1.62	1–7

Note. Percentages (%) are provided for discrete variables, whereas means (M) and standard deviations (SD) are given for continuous variables. Child information pertains to the target child.

Table 2. Correlations between variables included in the multigroup path model for fathers less involved and those more involved than the other parent.

Variable	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
1. Father involvement T1	–	.73**	.02	−.04	−.49**	−.40**	.06	.03	.58**	.25**
2. Father involvement T2	.62**	–	−.02	.01	−.53**	−.49**	.04	.05	.68**	.50**
3. Father’s psy. well-being T1	.23**	.19**	–	.46**	.12*	.10	−.26**	−.07	.00	−.04
4. Father’s psy. well-being T2	.15*	.20*	.65**	–	.22**	.22**	−.32**	−.34**	.10	.09
5. Coparenting relationship T1	.31**	.18*	.33**	.23**	–	.75**	−.22**	−.27**	−.09	−.22**
6. Coparenting relationship T2	.24**	.23**	.23**	.23**	.71**	–	−.26**	−.29**	−.22**	−.20**
7. Child’s behavioral difficulties T1	−.20**	−.04	−.39**	−.29**	−.39**	−.28**	–	.59**	−.03	.001
8. Child’s behavioral difficulties T2	−.16*	−.15*	−.27**	−.26**	−.26**	−.38**	.56**	–	.03	−.01
9. Custody time T1	.58**	.46**	.16**	.20**	.20**	.23**	−.12*	−.18**	–	.36**
10. Custody time T2	.45**	.68**	.16*	.21**	.21**	.26**	−.05	−.20**	.61**	–

Note. Below the diagonal = fathers less involved than the other parent. Above the diagonal = fathers more involved than the other parent. * p < .05 ** p < .01.

Table 3. Model fit indices allowing for differences in estimates for fathers less involved and more involved than the other parent.

Model	x^2	df	p	CFI	TLI	RMSEA	SRMR	Model comparison	$\mathrm{\Delta }$x^2	$\mathrm{\Delta }$df	p
Model 1 Full constraints: regressions, factor covariance.	148.47	54	<.001	.90	.86	.07	.12	–	–	–	–
Model 2 Freed: coparenting relationship T1 $\to$father involvement T1 Model 3	87.59	53	.002	.97	.95	.04	.09	2 versus 1	60.88	1	<.001
Freed: coparenting relationship T1 $\leftarrow \to$custody time T1 Model 4	77.83	52	.01	.97	.96	.04	.07	3 versus 2	9.76	1	.002
Freed coparenting relationship T2 $\leftarrow \to$father involvement T2 Model 5	69.26	51	.05	.98	.97	.03	.07	4 versus 3	8.57	1	.003
Freed: custody time T1 $\to$father involvement T2	61.99	50	.12	.99	.98	.03	.07	5 versus 4	7.27	1	.01
Model 6 Freed: well-being T1$\to$ well-being T2	54.49	49	.27	.99	.99	.02	.06	6 versus 5	7.50	1	.01

Figure 1. Path Model distinguishing estimates for fathers less involved and more involved than the other parent.

Note. Coefficients in parentheses = fathers who are less involved than the other parent; in brackets = fathers who are more involved than the other parent. x² (63) = 68.04, p = .31, CFI = 1.00, TLI = 1.00, RMSEA = .02, SRMR = .08. ⁺p < .10.*p < .05.**p < .01.