Measures of dependence in menthol and nonmenthol smokers - A comprehensive narrative review

Figures & data

Figure 1. Flow diagram*.

Table 1. Validated and widely accepted measures of cigarette dependence in menthol and nonmenthol smokers - results from adjusted analyses.

Author. Date	Sample	Measure	Reference	AOR (95% CI)			Adjustment
Ahijevych et al. 2018^62	Inpatient stratified study of adult smokers, n = 136	FTND	Nonmenthol	Reported as not statistically different (data not shown)			Age, gender, race, education, cotinine
Allen & Unger 2007^31	Survey of adult African American Smokers in Los Angeles, n = 432	Odds of menthol w/ higher FTND Men / Women	Nonmenthol	0.97 (0.84, 1.13)/0.91 (0.77, 1.08)			Age and employment
Curtin et al. 2014^44	TUS-CPS (2003, 06/07); adult daily* smokers, n = 49,108	HSI category	HSI 1-2	HSI 3-4: 0.97 (0.95, 0.99)/HSI 5-6: 0.90 (0.87, 0.93), p < 0.0001			Age, gender, race/ethnicity
	TUS-CPS (2003, 06/07); adult regular*smokers, n = 55,307			HSI 3-4: 0.97 (0.95, 0.99)/HSI 5-6: 0.89 (0.86, 0.92), p < 0.0001
	TUS-CPS (2003, 06/07); adult past-month*smokers, n = 57,518			HSI 3-4: 0.99 (0.97, 1.00)/HSI 5-6: 0.91 (0.88, 0.93), p < 0.0001
	NHANES (2001-2010); adult daily smokers, n = 4,487			HSI 3-4: 1.08 (0.90, 1.30)/HSI 5-6: 1.03 (0.78, 1.35), p = 0.70
	NHANES (2001-2010); adult regular smokers, n = 4,759			HSI 3-4: 1.05 (0.88, 1.25)/HSI 5-6: 0.99 (0.76, 1.29), p = 0.83
	NHANES (2001-2010); adult past month smokers, n = 4,804			HSI 3-4: 1.06 (0.89, 1.26)/HSI 5-6: 0.99 (0.76, 1.28), p = 0.78
	NHANES (2001-2010); (12-19 years) past month smokers, n = 1,224			HSI 3-4: 0.73 (0.47, 1.12)/HSI 5-6: 0.83 (0.15, 4.62), p = 0.35
	TUS-CPS (2003, 06/07); (15-19 years) daily smokers n = 1,289			HSI 3-4: 1.02 (0.92, 1.14)/HSI 5-6: 0.85 (0.67, 1.09), p = 0.37
	TUS-CPS (2003, 06/07); (15-19 years) regular smokers, n = 1,536			HSI 3-4: 0.99 (0.89, 1.09)/HSI 5-6: 0.81 (0.63, 1.04), p = 0.25
	TUS-CPS (2003, 06/07); (15-19 years) past month smokers, n = 1,598			HSI 3-4: 0.99 (0.89, 1.10)/HSI 5-6: 0.81 (0.63, 1.03), p = 0.23
Fagan et al. 2015^46	Community sample of young adult daily smokers (18-35 yrs.) in Hawaii, n = 186		Menthol		Nonmenthol	p-value	BMI, gender, education, race/ethnicity, marital status, quit attempts, employment, alcohol and marijuana use.
		FTND	3.5		3.3	p = 0.71
		NDSS	−0.16		−0.17	p = 0.97
		WISDM-Brief	44.9		42.6	p = 0.40
Frost-Pineda et al. 2014^6	TES adult daily smokers, n = 3,341	FTND score (5 categories)	Nonmenthol	1.05 (0.91, 1.22)			Age, race, gender, education, tar yield category. Interaction term for menthol by race on FTND scores not significant
		FTND(low/med. vs. high)	Nonmenthol	0.94 (0.79, 1.13)
		FTND (low, medium, high)	Nonmenthol	0.97 (0.83, 1.13)
		HSI score	Menthol	1.13 (0.95, 1.34)
		Effect of FTND on menthol	Low; Low / med.; Med.	All 95% CI’s included 1.0 and all p-vales >0.05
Herbec et al. 2019^67	Adult smokers from eight European countries, n = 10,760	HSI	Unflavored/ HSI ≥4	Model 1: 0.47 (0.235 − 0.62) p < 0.001; Model 2: 0.60 (0.45 − 0.89) p = 0.003; Model 3: 0.63 (0.47 − 0.83) p = 0.011. p-values are for the overall model effect of the variable menthol in each model.			Model 2: sex, age, education, and HSI; Model 3: sex, age, education, HSI, and country.
Hooper et al. 2011^27	BRFSS Florida (2007) adult smokers, n = 3,396	NDSS	Nonmenthol	0.99 (0.95, 1.04)			“potentially confounding variables”
Kasza et al. 2014^49	ITC-4 country survey U.S. adult smoker cohort (2001-2011), n = 5,932	HSI - Overall	HSI 0-1	HSI 2-3: 1.01(0.93, 1.10)/HSI 4-6: 1.09 (0.99,1.21)			Age, gender, education, income, quit intention, time, instrument change
		HSI-Black		HSI 2-3:0.82 (0.63, 1.08)/HSI 4-6:0.82 (0.56, 1.21)
		HSI-Hispanic		HSI 2-3:1.81 (1.25, 2.61)/HSI 4-6:1.81 (0.98, 3.37)
		HSI-White		HSI 2-3:1.01 (0.92, 1.10)/HSI 4-6:1.10 (0.98, 1.22)
		Switchers		M to NM and NM to M switchers had reduced OR for HSI 4-6
Li et al. 2012^35	New Zealand National Surveys (2006-09) of Year 10 students (14-15 years), n = 118,840 total; 13,458 cigarette history	HONC	“The multiple linear regression model did not find a significant result linking reported HONC score to menthol preference (coef. = − .21, p value = .165).”				Demographics, smoking, parent/friend smoking
Marsh et al. 2012^36	Data from Youth Lifestyle Survey (2004) and Survey of Year 10 students in New Zealand (2006, 08). Current smokers n = 564, 334, 325 in respective years.	Menthol and HONC scores	No association between menthol and HONC scores				Gender, age, ethnicity
		HONC scores- Exclusive menthol	Exclusive nonmenthol	Exclusive menthol HONC scores 2.2 (1.1 to 3.2) points lower
		HONC scores- Menthol pref.	No preference	Exclusive menthol HONC scores 2.5 (1.3-3.7) points lower
Muscat et al. 2009^37	Community-based sample of adult smokers in New York, n = 525. FTND analysis, n = 278	Odds of High FTND menthol	Low/Med. FTND	1.1 (0.6, 2.1)			Age, gender, race and education
Young-Wolff et al. 2015^50	Adult smokers with serious mental illness, California, n = 1,042	Odds menthol use by FTND	Level of dependence	1.02 (0.97, 1.08)			Dependence not significant in bivariate model

AOR = adjusted odds ratio; BRFSS = Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System; CPD = cigarettes per day; CI = confidence interval; FTND = Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence; HONC = Hooked on Nicotine Checklist; HSI = Heaviness of Smoking Index; M = Menthol; Med. = Medium; NDSS = Nicotine Dependence Syndrome Scale; NHANES = National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; NHIS = National Health Interview Survey; NM = nonmenthol; TES = Total Exposure Study; TTFC = time to first cigarette; TUS-CPS = Tobacco Use Supplements to the Current Population Survey; WISDM = Wisconsin Inventory of Smoking Dependence Motives. *Daily smokers includes those who reported smoking every day; Regular smokers smoked at least 10 days; Past-month smokers smoked at least 1 day in the last month. Past-month includes regular and daily, and regular includes daily in these analyses. Sample sizes reported in separate publication (Curtin et al. Patterns of menthol cigarette use among current smokers, overall and within demographic strata, based on data from four U.S. government surveys. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2014 Oct;70(1):189-96.

Table 2. Validated measures of cigarette dependence in menthol and nonmenthol smokers - unadjusted results - mean values and percentages.

Author/Date	Sample	Measure	Menthol	Nonmenthol	p-value or SD/NSD*
Ahijevych et al. 2018^62^+	Inpatient stratified study of adult smokers, n = 136	FTND	(Data not shown)		NSD
Benowitz et al. 2004^69	Lab-based study of adult smokers, n = 14	FTQ	(Data not shown)		NSD
Benowitz et al. 2010^28	Lab-based study of adult smokers, n = 127	FTND	5.6	3.6	p = 0.22
Brody et al. 2013^29	Lab-based study adults, n = 114 (63 smokers)	FTND	4.1	3.9	NSD
Brunette et al. 2018^61	Young adult smokers (18-30 years) with serious mental illness, n = 81	FTND	4.5	4.9	p = 0.31
Collins & Moolchan 2006^32	Adolescent smokers applying to cessation study (Baltimore), n = 572	FTND	3.4	3.2	p = 0.23
Curtin et al. 2014a^44^+	2001-2010 NHANES Adult daily smokers	HSI Low (%) / Moderate (%) / High (%)	45.5/45.0/9.5	42.4/44.2/13.4	NSD/NSD/SD
	2001-2010 NHANES Adolescent - past month smoker	HSI Low (%) / Moderate (%) / High (%)	80.8/18.1/1.1	75.4/22.9/1.8	NSD/NSD/NSD
	2003 and 2006/07 CPS-TUS daily smokers	HSI Low (%) / Moderate (%) / High (%)	51.5/41.8/6.8	45.3/44.7/10.0	SD/SD/SD
Davis et al. 2019^64	Adult daily smokers in a reduced nicotine study, n = 169	FTND	5.1	4.9	p = 0.73
DeVito et al. 2016^45	Lab-based study of non-treatment seeking adult smokers, n = 134	FTND	5.52	5.04	p = 0.287
DiFranza et al. 2004^33	Retrospective/prospective longitudinal study of adolescents, n = 237	HONC (mean) / HONC (median)	6.0/6.5	6.0/7.0	NSD/NSD
Fagan et al. 2015^46^+	Community sample young adult smokers (18-35 yrs.) in Hawaii, n = 186.	FTND / NDSS / WISDM-Brief	3.9/−0.25/45.8	3.1/−0.44/40.2	p = 0.06/0.28/0.01
Faseru et al. 2011^34	AA light smokers (<10 CPD) in RCT, n = 540	FTND	3.2	3.1	p = 0.5223
Frost-Pineda et al. 2014^6^+	Adult daily smokers in TES, n = 3,341	FTND	4.5	4.6	Not reported
Gale et al. 2019^66	Adult smokers in RCT in Japan, n = 180	FTCD	5 (cigarette group) 4 (THP group)	5 (cigarette group) 5 (THP group)	NSD
Herbec et al. 2019^67^+	Adult smokers from eight European countries, n = 10,760	HSI	1.7	2.5	p < 0.001
Higgins et al. 2018^60	Daily smokers in a lab-based study of reduced nicotine cigarettes, n = 169	HSI (%) mild/mod/high (36% menthol)	41.4%/36.4%/30.4%		p = 0.48
Hooper et al. 2011^27^+	Florida BRFSS, n = 3,396 smokers	NDSS	3.1	3.3	p = 0.005
Hsu et al. 2016^47	Lab-based study of adult smokers, n = 105	FTND Score	4.8	5.4	p = 0.20
		FTND (%) - <5 / 5-6 / >6 points	45.1%/32.4%/21.1%	35.3%/29.4%/35.3%	p = 0.31
Jao et al. 2017^48	Adult smokers of ≥10 CPD in cessation study, n = 474	HSI slower NMR / HSI faster NMR	3.2/3.2	3.1/2.9	p > 0.10/ p > 0.10
Jarvik et al. 1994^71	Lab-based study in men who smoke ≥ 15 CPD (10 Black, 10 White), n = 20	FTQ-Black men / White men	8.4/6.75	5.75/7.25	NSD/NSD
Kosiba et al. 2019^65	AA smokers in a cessation study, n = 115	HSI	2.9	2.65	NSD
Liautaud et al. 2017^63	Lab-based study of AA adult smokers, n = 420	FTND	(Data not shown, 5.46 overall)		NS correlation
Miller et al. 1994^70	Lab-based study of male smokers, n = 12	FTQ	7.16	6.67	NSD
Muscat et al. 2009^37^+	Lab-based study of adult smokers, n = 525 – FTND results, n = 278	Low/Medium (%) / High (%) FTND	45%/55%	46%/53%	Not reported
Okuyemi et al. 2003^38	AA adult smokers in RCT, n = 600	FTND	4.7	4.4	p = 0.760
Okuyemi et al. 2004^39	Survey of AA adult smokers at inner-city health center, n = 480	FTND	4	4	p = 0.474
Okuyemi et al. 2007^30	AA adult light smokers (<10 CPD) in RCT, n = 755	NDSS	−0.955	−0.986	p = 0.744
Oncken et al. 2015^52	Secondary analysis of data from pregnant women in 2 studies, n = 323	FTND-Non-Hispanic / Hispanic Women	3.4/3.6	3.9/3.3	NSD/NSD
Perkins et al. 2017^53	Lab-based study of DSM-IV dependent adult smokers, n = 61	FTND	5.7	4.2	p < 0.005
Perkins et al. 2018^58	Lab-based study of DSM-IV dependent adult smokers, n = 73	FTND	5.5	4.6	p < 0.05
Reitzel et al. 2013a^40	Adult smokers in a cancer case-control study in Texas, n = 1067	HSI	2.54	2.82	p = 0.01
Reitzel et al. 2013b^41	Community cohort of adult smokers in Texas, n = 183	HSI	3.60	3.73	p = 0.5079
Rojewski et al. 2014^43	Adult smokers in cessation RCT, n = 166	FTND	5.5	5.5	NSD
Round et al. 2018^54	Adult smokers in RCT, randomized to NRT gum or e-cigarette, n = 158	FTND Baseline- Nicotine Gum/E-cig	6.2/6.0	6.3/6.0	NSD/NSD
Smith et al. 2014^55	Wisconsin smokers of ≥ 10 enrolled in cessation RCT, n = 1,439	FTND	5.5 (AA & W)	5.3 (W only)	p = 0.0357
Stroud et al. 2019^68	Two low-income, racially/ethnically diverse cohorts of pregnant smokers recruited from 2006-2015, n = 166	FTND	2.7	2.3	NSD
Valentine et al. 2018^59	Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of young adult smokers, n = 57	FTND	4.3	4.0	NSD
Veldheer et al. 2018^57	Baseline measure in clinical trial of reduced nicotine cigarettes, n = 341	FTND	6.1	6.6	p = 0.03
		HONC	7.7	7.8	p = 0.52
Watson et al. 2017^51	Menthol cross-over study in adult smokers, n = 42	Low HSI /Moderate HSI / High HSI %	12%/58%/30%	6%/63%/31%	Not reported
Winhusen et al. 2013^42	Stimulant dependent adult smokers in RCT, n = 510	FTND Cocaine / Meth. Dependent	5.7/5.3	5.6/5.6	NSD/NSD
Young-Wolff et al. 2015^50^+	Adult smokers with serious mental illness (San Francisco), n = 1,042	FTND	4.76	4.65	p = 0.43
Zuo et al. 2015^56	Lab-based study of adult smokers, n = 19	FTND	5.6	5.4	NSD

⁺See also adjusted analysis in Table 1.

*NSD = No statistically significant difference, SD = statistically significant difference, p-values presented as reported in publication.

AA = African American; BRFSS = Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System; CPD = cigarettes per day; FTND = Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence; DSM-IV = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth edition; e-cig = electronic cigarette; FTQ = Fagerström Tolerance Questionnaire; HONC = Hooked on Nicotine Checklist; HSI = Heaviness of Smoking Index; NDSS = Nicotine Dependence Syndrome Scale; NHANES = National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; NHIS = National Health Interview Survey; NMR = Nicotine Metabolite Ratio; RCT = Randomized Clinical Trial; TES = Total Exposure Study; THS = Tobacco Heating System; THP = Tobacco Heating Product; TTFC = time to first cigarette; TUS-CPS = Tobacco Use Supplements to the Current Population Survey; W = White.

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