Mujahideen Mobilization: Examining the Evolution of the Global Jihadist Movement’s Communicative Action Repertoire

Abstract

Drawing on Tilly’s notion of “repertoire of action,” this article shows how the evolution of the global jihadist movement’s communicative action repertoire has increased the potential resonance of its discourse. It foresees the construction of the global jihadist movement’s discourse of mobilization as the result of the evolution of its network of actors, the context in which its communications are undertaken, and its adaptation to new communication technologies. Accordingly, it argues that the decentralization of the global jihadist movement has led to a widening of its communicative action repertoire and a diversification of its discourse offering.

Notes

Notes

1 Charles Tilly, Stories, Identities, and Political Change (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002).

2 Cristina Archetti, Understanding Terrorism in the Age of Global Media: A Communication Approach (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 33.

3 More specifically the global Salafi-jihadism introduced by Abdallah Azzam, Osama bin Laden, and Ayman al-Zawahiri in the 1980s in Afghanistan.

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10 Anne Aly, ‘‘Brothers, Believers, Brave Mujahideen: Focusing Attention on the Audience of Violent Jihadist Preachers,’’ Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 40, no. 1 (2017), 62–76.

11 Charles Tilly, ‘‘Les Origines Du Répertoire D'action Collective Contemporaine En France Et En Grande-Bretagne.,’’ Vingtième Siècle. Revue d'histoire 4 (1984), 89–108, at 99.Translated from French.

12 Alex P. Schmid and Janny de Graaf, Violence as Communication: Insurgent Terrorism and the Western News Media (London, UK: Sage, 1982); Ralph E. Dowling, ‘‘Terrorism and the Media: A Rhetorical Genre,’’ Journal of Communication 36, no. 1 (1986), 12–24; John L. Martin, ‘‘The Media's Role in International Terrorism,’’ Terrorism: An International Journal 8, no. 2 (1985), 127–146; Ronald D. Crelinsten, ‘‘Power and Meaning: Terrorism as a Struggle over Access to the Communication Structure,’’ in Contemporary Research on Terrorism, ed. Paul Wilkinson and Alasdair M. Stewart (Aberdeen, UK: Aberdeen University Press, 1987).

13 Nadège Freour, ‘‘Le Répertoire D'action Collective Comme Répertoire D'offre D'engagement: Un Écairage Sur Les Contraintes Liées Aux Processus De Mobilisation Contemporains’’ (paper presented at the 8e Congrès de l'Association Française de Science Politique. Table Ronde n°1: Où en sont les théories de l’action collective?, 2005).

14 John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald, ‘‘Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory,’’ American Journal of Sociology 82, no. 6 (1977), 1212–1241.

15 Alberto Melucci, ‘‘Mouvements Sociaux, Mouvements Post-Politiques,’’ Revue Internationale d'Action Communautaire/International Review of Community Development 10, no. 50 (1983), 13–30; Alain Touraine, Production De La Société (Paris: Seuil, 1973); Alain Touraine, La Voix Et Le Regard (Paris: Seuil, 1978); Mayer N. Zald and John D. McCarthy, ‘‘Social Movement Industries: Competition and Cooperation among Movement Organizations,’’ 1979, https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/50975/201.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed April 14, 2017)

16 Douglas D. Heckathorn, ‘‘Collective Action and Group Heterogeneity: Voluntary Provision Versus Selective Incentives,’’ American Sociological Review 58, no. 3 (1993), 329–350; Pamela E. Oliver, Gerald Marwell, and Ruy Teixeira, ‘‘A Theory of the Critical Mass. I. Interdependence, Group Heterogeneity, and the Production of Collective Action,’’ American Journal of Sociology 91, no. 3 (1985), 522–556; Luther Gerlach and Virginia Hine, People, Power, Change: Movements of Social Transformation (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1970).

17 Douglas D. Heckathorn, ‘‘Collective Sanctions and Group Heterogeneity: Cohesion and Polarization in Normative Systems,’’ in Advances in Group Process Theory and Research, ed. Ed Lawler (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1992), 41–63.

18 Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

19 Alberto Melucci, ‘‘Société En Changement Et Nouveaux Mouvements Sociaux,’’ Sociologie et sociétés 10, no. 2 (1978), 37–54; Melucci, ‘‘Mouvements Sociaux, Mouvements Post-Politiques"; Touraine, La Voix Et Le Regard; Alain Touraine, S. Hegedus, and M. Wieviorka, La Prophétie Antinucléaire (Paris: Seuil, 1980).

20 Érik Neveu, Sociologie Des Mouvements Sociaux (Paris: La Découverte, 2015).

21 Nadine Gurr and Benjamin Cole, The New Face of Terrorism (New York: I.B.Tauris, 2002); Brian Michael Jenkins, ‘‘The New Age of Terrorism,’’ in Mcgraw-Hill Homeland Security Handbook, ed. David Kamien (New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2006), 117–130; Walter Laqueur, ‘‘Postmodern Terrorism,’’ Foreign Affairs 75, no. 5 (1996), 24–36; Ashton B. Carter, John Deutch, and Philip Zelikow, ‘‘Catastrophic Terrorism,’’ Foreign Affairs 77, no. 6 (1999), 80–94.

22 Isabelle Duyvesteyn, ‘‘How New Is the New Terrorism?,’’ Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 27, no. 5 (2004), 439–454; Alexander Spencer, ‘‘Questioning the Concept of New Terrorism,’’ Peace Conflict & Development 8 (2006), 1–33; David Tucker, ‘‘What Is New About the New Terrorism and How Dangerous Is It?,’’ Terrorism and Political Violence 13, no. 3 (2001), 1–14.

23 Benjamin Ducol, ‘‘Comment Le Jihadisme Est-Il Devenu Numérique? Évolutions, Tendances Et Ripostes,’’ Sécurité et stratégie 1, no. 20 (2015), 34–43; Bruce Hoffman, ‘‘The Leaderless Jihad's Leader,’’ Foreign Affairs (2011). [En ligne], http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67851/bruce-hoffman/the-leaderless-jihads-leader (accessed April 17, 2017) Brad McAllister, ‘‘Al Qaeda and the Innovative Firm: Demythologizing the Network,’’ Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 27, no. 4 (2004), 297–319; Marc Sageman, Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-First Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008).

24 Tilly, ‘‘Les Origines Du Répertoire D'action Collective Contemporaine En France Et En Grande-Bretagne."

25 Torres, Jordan, and Horsburgh, ‘‘Analysis and Evolution of the Global Jihadist Movement Propaganda"; Joseph A. Carter, Shiraz Maher, and Peter R. Neumann, ‘‘#Greenbirds: Measuring Importance and Influence in Syrian Foreign Fighter Networks,’’ ICSR Report, 2014, http://icsr.info/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/ICSR-Report-Greenbirds-Measuring-Importance-and-Infleunce-in-Syrian-Foreign-Fighter-Networks.pdf (accessed April 17, 2017) Jessica Stern and J. M. Berger, Isis: The State of Terror (New York: HarperCollins, 2015); Ducol, ‘‘Comment Le Jihadisme Est-Il Devenu Numérique? Évolutions, Tendances Et Ripostes."

26 Filiu, ‘‘Définir Al-Qaida."

27 Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (New York: Colombia University Press, 2006); Hoffman, ‘‘The Leaderless Jihad's Leader"; Sageman, Leaderless Jihad; Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks.

28 Donatella Della Porta et al., Globalization from Below: Transnational Activists and Protest Networks (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006).

29 Filiu, ‘‘Définir Al-Qaida"; Sageman, Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-First Century.

30 Filiu, ‘‘Définir Al-Qaida."

31 John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt, Networks and Netwars: The Future of Terror, Crime, and Militancy (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2001).

32 McAllister, ‘‘Al Qaeda and the Innovative Firm."

33 Ibid.; Arquilla and Ronfeldt, Networks and Netwars.

34 Sageman, Leaderless Jihad.

35 Hoffman, ‘‘The Leaderless Jihad's Leader."

36 Jason Burke, The New Threat: The Past, Present, and Future of Islamic Militancy (New York: The New Press, 2015); Ducol, ‘‘Comment Le Jihadisme Est-Il Devenu Numérique? Évolutions, Tendances Et Ripostes"; Torres, Jordan, and Horsburgh, ‘‘Analysis and Evolution of the Global Jihadist Movement Propaganda."

37 Barak Mendelsohn, The Al-Qaeda Franchise: The Expansion of Al-Qaeda and Its Consequences (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).

38 Bill Ardolino, Fallujah Awakens: Marines, Sheikhs, and the Battle against Al-Qaeda (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2013); William McCants, The Isis Apocalypse: The History, Strategy, and Doomsday Vision of the Islamic State (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2015).

39 Ardolino, Fallujah Awakens; Stern and Berger, Isis.

40 McCants, The Isis Apocalypse: The History, Strategy, and Doomsday Vision of the Islamic State; Stern and Berger, Isis: The State of Terror; Clint Watts, ‘‘Isis and Al Qaeda Race to the Bottom,’’ Foreign Affairs 2015.

41 McCants, The Isis Apocalypse; Novenario, ‘‘Differentiating Al Qaeda and the Islamic State through Strategies Publicized in Jihadist Magazines"; Watts, ‘‘Isis and Al Qaeda Race to the Bottom"; Clint Watts, ‘‘Zawahiri’s Latest Message: Please Listen to Me Jihadis, Stop Bickering,’’ Geopoliticus (2013), http://www.fpri.org/geopoliticus/2013/10/zawahiris-latest-message-please-listen-me-jihadis-stop-bickering (accessed April 18, 2017) Tore Refslund Hamming, ‘‘The Al Qaeda-Islamic State Rivalry: Competition Yes, but No Competitive Escalation,’’ Terrorism and Political Violence (2017).

42 Javier Lesaca, ‘‘On Social Media , Isis Uses Modern Cultural Images to Spread Anti-Modern Values,’’ Brookings Institution 2015, n.p.

43 Zelin, The War between Isis and Al-Qaeda for Supremacy of the Global Jihadist Movement.

44 Charlie Winter, ‘‘The Virtual ‘Caliphate’: Understanding Islamic State's Propaganda Strategy,’’ The Quilliam Foundation, 2015. http://www.quilliamfoundation.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/publications/free/the-virtual-caliphate-understanding-islamic-states-propaganda-strategy.pdf (accessed April 18, 2017)

45 Wilayat al-Falluja, Wilayat Ṣalaḥ al-Din, Wilayat Baghdad, Wilayat Ninawa, Wilayat al-Anbar, Wilayat Dijla, Wilayat al-Janub, Wilayat Kirkuk, Wilayat Diyala and Wilayat Shamal Baghdad.

46 Wilayat al-Khayr, Wilayat al-Baraka, Wilayat Halab, Wilayat Dimashq, Wilayat Hama, Wilayat Homs and Wilayat al-Raqqa.

47 Wilayat al-Furat and Wilayat al-Jazira.

48 Wilayat Adan-Abyan, Wilayat al-Bayda, Wilayat Lahj, Wilayat San’aa, Wilayat Shabwa, Wilayat al-Liwa al-Akhdar and Wilayat Haḍramawt.

49 Wilayat Najd and Wilayat al-Hijaz.

50 Wilayat Sayna and Wilayat Masr

51 Wilayat Khurasan.

52 Rukmini Calimachi, ‘‘A News Agency with Scoops Directly from Isis, and a Veneer of Objectivity,’’ New York Times, 14 January 2016.

53 Jenkins, ‘‘The New Age of Terrorism."

54 Ducol, ‘‘Comment Le Jihadisme Est-Il Devenu Numérique?"

55 Aaron Y. Zelin, ‘‘The State of Global Jihad Online,’’ 2013. http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/the-state-of-global-jihad-online (accessed April 18, 2017)

56 Benjamin Ducol, ‘‘Devenir Jihadiste À L'ère Numérique’’ (Thèse de doctorat, Université Laval, 2015).

57 Gilles Kepel and Jean-Pierre Milelli, Al-Qaida Dans Le Texte (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2008).

58 Klausen, ‘‘Tweeting the Jihad."

59 Stern and Berger, Isis.

60 Howard Saul Becker, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (New York: Free Press, 1963).

61 Kyle J. Greene, ‘‘Isis: Trends in Terrorist Media and Propaganda,’’ 2015, http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/international_studies_capstones/3 (accessed April 18, 2017) Milton, Communication Breakdown; Torres-Soriano, ‘‘The Caliphate Is Not a Tweet Away: The Social Media Experience of Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb"; Torres, Jordan, and Horsburgh, ‘‘Analysis and Evolution of the Global Jihadist Movement Propaganda"; Winter, The Virtual ‘‘Caliphate.”

62 Torres, Jordan, and Horsburgh, ‘‘Analysis and Evolution of the Global Jihadist Movement Propaganda"; Winter, The Virtual ‘‘Caliphate."

63 Carter, Maher, and Neumann, #Greenbirds.

64 Greg Miller and Souad Makhennet, ‘‘Inside the Surreal World of the Islamic State's Propaganda Machine,’’ The Washington Post 2015; Milton, Communication Breakdown: Unraveling the Islamic State's Media Efforts; U.S. Government, ‘‘Conference Report on National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2016’’ (Washington, DC: U.S Government Publishing Office, 2015), http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CRPT-114hrpt270/pdf/CRPT-114hrpt270.pdf (accessed May 8, 2017)

65 Ducol, ‘‘Comment Le Jihadisme Est-Il Devenu Numérique? Évolutions, Tendances Et Ripostes"; Prucha and Fisher, Tweeting for the Caliphate: Twitter as the New Frontier for Jihadist Propaganda; Gilbert Ramsay, Jihadi Culture on the World Wide Web (London, UK: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2013); Torres-Soriano, ‘‘The Road to Media Jihad"; Torres-Soriano, ‘‘The Dynamics of the Creation, Evolution, and Disappearance of Terrorist Internet Forums"; Yannick Veilleux-Lepage, ‘‘Paradigmatic Shifts in Jihadism in Cyberspace: The Emerging Role of Unaffiliated Sympathizers in Islamic State’s Social Media Strategy,’’ Journal of Terrorism Research 7, no. 1 (2016), 36–51.

66 Milton, Communication Breakdown.

67 Carter, Maher, and Neumann, #Greenbirds, 17–18.

68 Ducol, ‘‘Comment Le Jihadisme Est-Il Devenu Numérique? Évolutions, Tendances Et Ripostes"; Torres-Soriano, ‘‘The Dynamics of the Creation, Evolution, and Disappearance of Terrorist Internet Forums."

69 Nahed Eltantawy and Julie B. Wiest, ‘‘The Arab Spring Social Media in the Egyptian Revolution: Reconsidering Resource Mobilization Theory,’’ International Journal of Communication 5 (2011), 1207–1224; Paolo Gerbaudo, Tweets and the Streets: Social Media and Contemporary Activism (London, UK: Pluto Press, 2012); Habibul Haque Khondker, ‘‘Role of the New Media in the Arab Spring,’’ Globalizations 8, no. 5 (2011), 675–679.

70 Stern and Berger, Isis.

71 Ibid., 166.

72 Carter, Maher, and Neumann, #Greenbirds; Stern and Berger, Isis.

73 Ali Fisher, ‘‘Swarcast: How Jihadist Networks Maintain a Persistent Online Presence,’’ Perspectives on Terrorism 9, no. 3 (2015), 3–20; Winter, The Virtual ‘‘Caliphate": Understanding Islamic State's Propaganda Strategy; Della Porta et al., Globalization from Below: Transnational Activists and Protest Networks.

74 Archetti, Understanding Terrorism in the Age of Global Media.

75 Gadi Wolfsfeld, Elad Segev, and Tamir Sheafer, ‘‘Social Media and the Arab Spring: Politics Comes First,’’ The International Journal of Press/Politics 18, no. 2 (2013), 115–137.

76 Fisher, ‘‘Swarcast: How Jihadist Networks Maintain a Persistent Online Presence"; Winter, The Virtual ‘‘Caliphate": Understanding Islamic State's Propaganda Strategy.

77 Julia E. Wright and Michael Bachmann, ‘‘Inciting Criminal Violence: An Examination of Al Qaida's Persuasive Devices in the Digital World,’’ Journal of Terrorism Research 6, no. 2 (2015), 70–82, at 77.

78 Michael Barthel et al., ‘‘The Evolving Role of News on Twitter and Facebook,’’ 2015, http://www.journalism.org/2015/07/14/the-evolving-role-of-news-on-twitter-and-facebook/ (accessed May 8, 2017) Trevor Diehl, Brian E. Weeks, and Homero Gil de Zuniga, ‘‘Political Persuasion on Social Media: Tracing Direct and Indirect Effects of News Use and Social Interaction,’’ New Media & Society (à paraître); Paolo Gerbaudo and Emiliano Treré, ‘‘In Search of the ‘We' of Social Media Activism: Introduction to the Special Issue on Social Media and Protest Identities,’’ Information, Communication & Society 18, no. 8 (2015), 865–871.

79 Garth S. Jowett and Victoria O'Donnell, Propaganda & Persuasion (6th ed.) (Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2015).

80 Turkle, Alone Together.

81 David A. Snow et al., ‘‘Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation,’’ American Sociological Review 51, no. 4 (1986), 464–481; David A. Snow and Robert D. Benford, ‘‘Ideology, Frame and Resonance,’’ International Social Movement Research 1, no. 1 (1988), 197–217; David A. Snow and Robert D. Benford, ‘‘Master Frames and Cycles of Protest,’’ in Frontiers in Social Movement Theory, ed. Aldon D. Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992).

82 Robert D. Benford, ‘‘Frame Disputes within the Nuclear Disarmament Movement,’’ Social Forces 71, no. 3 (1993), 677–701; Mayer N. Zald and John D. McCarthy, ‘‘Social Movement Industries: Competition and Cooperation among Movement Organizations,’’ in Research in Social Movements, Conflict and Change, ed. Louis Kriesberg (Bingley, UK: JAI Press, 1980), 1–20.

83 Holbrook, The Al-Qaeda Doctrine.

84 Kepel and Milelli, Al-Qaida Dans Le Texte.

85 Patrick Charaudeau, ‘‘Le Discours Propagandiste. Essai De Typologisation,’’ in La Propagande: Image, Paroles Et Manipulations, ed. Alexandre Dorna, Jean Quellien, and Stéphane Simonnet (Paris: L'Harmattan, 2008).

86 J. M. Berger, Jihad 2.0: Social Media in the Next Evolution of Terrorist Recruitment (Washington, DC: C-SPAN, 2015); Stern and Berger, Isis.

87 Ayman al-Zawahiri, Oh People Of Islam (As-Sahab Foundation for Media Production, 2016).

88 Charaudeau, ‘‘Le Discours Propagandiste. Essai De Typologisation."

89 Rukmini Callimachi, ‘‘A News Agency with Scoops Directly from Isis, and a Veneer of Objectivity,’’ New York Times, 14 January 2016.

90 Prucha, ‘‘Is and the Jihadist Information Highway."

91 Snow and Benford, ‘‘Ideology, Frame and Resonance."

92 Bill Braniff and Assaf Moghadam, ‘‘Towards Global Jihadism: Al-Qaeda's Strategic, Ideological and Structural Adaptations since 9/11,’’ Perspectives on Terrorism 5, no. 2 (2011), http://terrorismanalysts.com/pt/index.php/pot/article/view/braniff-towards-global-jihadism/289. (accessed May 8, 2017)

93 Gilles Kepel and Antoine Jardin, Terreur Dans L'hexagone. Génèse Du Djihad Français (Paris: Gallimard, 2015).

94 McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970.

95 Hoffman, ‘‘The Leaderless Jihad's Leader."