From Superiority to Supremacy: Exploring the Vulnerability of Military and Police Special Forces to Extreme Right Radicalization

Abstract

This article explores potential vulnerability factors for extreme right radicalization of Special Operation Forces (SOF) and Special Weapons and Tactics (S.W.A.T.) personnel in Western countries. Drawing on inquiry commissions reports regarding extreme right behavior or ethical misconduct by six elite units from four countries (Germany, Canada, Australia, the U.S.), this article argues that a lack of diversity in gender and ethnicity, elite warrior subcultures, echo chamber effects and cognitive rigidity can become vulnerability factors for extreme right radicalization. Further, the need for targeted resilience among SOF and S.W.A.T. units designed to counter such processes is highlighted.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Michael A. Jensen, Elizabeth Yates, and Sheehan Kane, Radicalization in the Ranks: An Assessment of the Scope and Nature of Criminal Extremism in the United States Military (Maryland, MD: National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START), 2022), 2.

2 Ibid., 9.

3 Ibid., 12.

4 Ibid.

5 Ibid.

6 Sophia Moskalenko, "Zip-Tie Guys: Military-Grade Radicalization among Capitol Hill Insurrectionists," Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict 14, no. 2 (2021).

7 Daniel Koehler, "A Threat from Within? Exploring the Link between the Extreme Right and the Military," ICCT Policy Brief, no. September 2019 (2019): 5–6.

8 Kathleen Belew, Bring the War Home: The White Power Movement and Paramilitary America (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2018), 144.

9 Ibid., 142.

10 SPLC, "Frazier Glenn Miller," Southern Poverty Law Center n.a.

11 Belew, Bring the War Home: The White Power Movement and Paramilitary America, 198.

12 David Philipps, Alpha: Eddie Gallagher and the War for the Soul of the Navy Seals, First edition. ed. (New York: Crown, 2021); Paul Le Gay Brereton, The Inspector-General of the Australian Defence Force Afghanistan Inquiry Report (Canberra, Australia: Commonwealth of Australia, 2020).

13 Matt Kennard, Irregular Army: How the Us Military Recruited Neo-Nazis, Gang Members, and Criminals to Fight the War on Terror (London and New York: Verso Books, 2012).

14 David Holthouse, "Several High Profile Racist Extremists Serve in the U.S. Military," SPLC Intelligence Report Summer Issue (2006).

15 Carol E. Lee, "In Secret Facebook Groups, America’s Best Warriors Share Racist Jabs, Lies About 2020, Even Qanon Theories," NBC News, April 16 2021; Kelly Weill, "What Happens When Ex-Navy Seals Go Full Qanon?," The Daily Beast, September 1 2020.

16 Deutsche-Welle, "Ksk: German Special Forces Company Dissolved Due to Far-Right Concerns," Deutsche Welle, July 30 2020.

17 Zeit-Online, "Lorenz Caffier Tauscht Lka-Führung Nach Prepperaffäre Aus," Die Zeit, November 26 2019.

18 dpa, "Rechtsextreme Umtrieben Im Sek: Dienstzeit Wird Begrenzt," Süddeutsche Zeitung, August 12 2020.

19 Christopher F. Schuetze, "Elite German Police Unit Disbanded over Far-Right Group Chat," The New York Times, June 10 2021.

20 Håvard Haugstvedt and Daniel Koehler, "Armed and Explosive? An Explorative Statistical Analysis of Extremist Radicalization Cases with Military Background," Terrorism and Political Violence (2021).

21 Matthias Gebauer, "Militärgeheimdienst Ermittelt Gegen Eliteeinheit Ksk," Der Spiegel, September 9 2019.

22 Joseph Soeters, "Organizational Cultures in the Military," in Handbook of the Sociology of the Military, ed. Giuseppe Caforio and Marina Nuciari (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018).

23 Haugstvedt and Koehler, "Armed and Explosive? An Explorative Statistical Analysis of Extremist Radicalization Cases with Military Background."; Jensen, Yates, and Kane, Radicalization in the Ranks: An Assessment of the Scope and Nature of Criminal Extremism in the United States Military.

24 Kira Harris, Eyal Gringart, and Deirdre Drake, Military Retirement: Reflections from Former Members of Special Operations Forces, vol. 10 (Directorate of Future Land Warfare, 2013).

25 Harris Chaiklin, "Attitudes, Behavior, and Social Practice," The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare 38, no. 1 (2011).

26 Cynthia Miller-Idriss, The Extreme Gone Mainstream: Commercialization and Far Right Youth Cuture in Germany (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018), 18.

27 Eric T. Olson, "Us Special Operations: Context and Capabilities in Irregular Warfare," Joint Forces Quarterly 1st Quarter 2010, no. 56 (2010); Eitan Shamir and Eyal Ben-Ari, "The Rise of Special Operations Forces: Generalized Specialization, Boundary Spanning and Military Autonomy," Journal of Strategic Studies 41, no. 3 (2018).

28 NATO, "Nato Glossary of Terms and Definitions (English and French). Aap-06 (Edition 2015)," (Brussels: NATO Standardization Agency: 2-S-8, 2015), 118.

29 Ibid.

30 Ibid., 67.

31 Shamir and Ben-Ari, "The Rise of Special Operations Forces: Generalized Specialization, Boundary Spanning and Military Autonomy," 338.

32 Susan S White et al., "Developing Adaptive Proficiency in Special Forces Officers," (Fort Bragg: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 2005).

33 Scott A Beal, "The Roles of Perseverance, Cognitive Ability, and Physical Fitness in Us Army Special Forces Assessment and Selection," (Fort Bragg: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 2010).

34 NTOA, Tactical Response and Operations Standard for Law Enforcement Agencies (Colorado Springs: National Tactical Officers Association (NTOA), 2018), 12.

35 Ibid., 10.

36 Jessica Strader et al., "Special Weapons and Tactics Occupational-Specific Physical Assessments and Fitness Measures," International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 21 (2020): 2.

37 Matthew A. Cole, Code over Country: The Tragedy and Corruption of Seal Team Six, Kindle ed. (New York: Bold Type Books, 2022), 150–56.

38 Sam Bieler, "Police Militarization in the USA: The State of the Field," Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 39, no. 4 (2016).

39 E.g., Michael Mann, "Were the Perpetrators of Genocide “Ordinary Men” or “Real Nazis”? Results from Fifteen Hundred Biographics," Holocaust and Genocide Studies 14, no. 3 (2000).

40 E.g., Bernd Greiner, War without Fronts: The USA in Vietnam (London: Random House, 2010).

41 Edgar Jones, “The Psychology of Killing: The Combat Experience of British Soldiers during the First World War,” Journal of Contemporary History 41, no. 2 (2006): 229–46, https://doi.org/10.1177/0022009406062055.

42 E.g., Sherie Mershon and Steven Schlossman, Foxholes and Color Lines (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Pres, 1998).

43 E.g., James Griffith, "When Does Soldier Patriotism or Nationalism Matter? The Role of Transformational Small‐Unit Leaders," Journal of Applied Social Psychology 40, no. 5 (2010).

44 E.g, EM Schreiber, "Authoritarian Attitudes in the United States Army," Armed Forces & Society 6, no. 1 (1979).

45 RA Goldenberg, "The New Challenge to Operational Readiness: The Threat of Extremist and Supremacist Groups to the United States Military," (Newport, RO: Naval War College, 1997); Walter M Hudson, "Racial Extremism in the Army," (Charlottesville, VA: The Judge Advocate General’s School United States Army, 1998); Marc Flacks and Martin F Wiskoff, "Gangs, Extremists Groups, and the Military: Screening for Service," (Monterey, CA: Security Research Center, 1998); Lawrence M Curtin Jr, "White Extremism & the Us Military," (Monterey, CA: Naval Postgraduate School, 1997).

46 Sherene Razack, Dark Threats and White Knights: The Somalia Affair, Peacekeeping, and the New Imperialism (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004).

47 Koehler, "A Threat from Within? Exploring the Link between the Extreme Right and the Military."

48 Wolfgang Gessenharter, Helmut Fröchling, and Burkhard Krupp, Rechtsextremismus Als Normativ-Praktisches Forschungsproblem: Eine Empirische Analyse Der Einstellungen Von Studierenden Offizieren Der Hochschule Der Bundeswehr Hamburg Sowie Von Militärischen Und Zivilen Vergleichsgruppen, Studien Zu Gesellschaft Und Bildung Bd. 4 (Weinheim ; Basel: Beltz, 1978).

49 Moskalenko, "Zip-Tie Guys: Military-Grade Radicalization among Capitol Hill Insurrectionists."

50 Pete Simi, Bryan Bubolz, and Ann Hardmann, "Military Experience, Identity Discrepancies, and Far Right Terrorism: An Exploratory Analysis," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 36, no. 8 (2013); Haugstvedt and Koehler, "Armed and Explosive? An Explorative Statistical Analysis of Extremist Radicalization Cases with Military Background."

51 "Armed and Explosive? An Explorative Statistical Analysis of Extremist Radicalization Cases with Military Background."; Belew, Bring the War Home: The White Power Movement and Paramilitary America.

52 Hanna Rigault Arkhis and Jessica White to ICCT Publications, March 3, 2022, https://icct.nl/publication/female-veterans-and-right-wing-extremism-becoming-one-of-the-boys/.

53 Kevin D. Haggerty and Sandra M. Bucerius, "Radicalization as Martialization: Towards a Better Appreciation for the Progression to Violence," Terrorism and Political Violence 32, no. 4 (2018).

54 Kira Harris, Eyal Gringart, and Deirdre Drake, "Leaving Ideological Groups Behind: A Model of Disengagement," Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression 10, no. 2 (2017).

55 E. Ashby Plant and B. Michelle Peruche, "The Consequences of Race for Police Officers’ Responses to Criminal Suspects," Psychological Science 16, no. 3 (2005); B. Keith Payne, "Prejudice and Perception: The Role of Automatic and Controlled Processes in Misperceiving a Weapon," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81, no. 2 (2001); Jennifer L. Eberhardt et al., "Seeing Black: Race, Crime, and Visual Processing," ibid.87, no. 6 (2004).

56 Phillip Atiba Goff and Kimberly Barsamian Kahn, "Racial Bias in Policing: Why We Know Less Than We Should," Social Issues and Policy Review 6, no. 1 (2012); Kimberly Barsamian Kahn et al., "Protecting Whiteness:White Phenotypic Racial Stereotypicality Reduces Police Use of Force," Social Psychological and Personality Science 7, no. 5 (2016).

57 Aldina Mesic et al., "The Relationship between Structural Racism and Black-White Disparities in Fatal Police Shootings at the State Level," Journal of the National Medical Association 110, no. 2 (2018); Rhea W. Boyd, "Police Violence and the Built Harm of Structural Racism," Lancet 392, no. 10144 (2018); Julian M Rucker and Jennifer A Richeson, "Toward an Understanding of Structural Racism: Implications for Criminal Justice," Science 374, no. 6565 (2021); Paul Gordon, White Law: Racism in the Police, Courts, and Prisons (London: Pluto Press London, 1983).

58 Cassandra Chaney and Ray V Robertson, "Racism and Police Brutality in America," Journal of African American Studies 17, no. 4 (2013); Michael D Schlosser, "Racial Attitudes of Police Recruits in the United States Midwest Police Academy: A Quantitative Examination," International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences 8, no. 2 (2013); Julie Kiernan Coon, "Police Officers’ Attitudes toward Diversity Issues: Comparing Supervisors and Non-Supervisors on Multicultural Skills, Values, and Training," International Journal of Police Science & Management 18, no. 2 (2016); Sophine Charles, "Professional Integrity, Modern Racism, Self-Esteem, and Universality-Diversity Orientation of Police Officers in a Large Urban Police Agency," (2009).

59 Eberhardt et al., "Seeing Black: Race, Crime, and Visual Processing."; Joshua Correll et al., "Across the Thin Blue Line: Police Officers and Racial Bias in the Decision to Shoot," Journal of personality and social psychology 92, no. 6 (2007); Plant and Peruche, "The Consequences of Race for Police Officers’ Responses to Criminal Suspects."

60 Roland Eckert, Johannes Jungbauer, and Helmut Willems, "Zur Feindschaft Verdammt? Belastungssituationen Der Polizei Im Umgang Mit Ausländischen Tatverdächtigen Und Ihre Konsequenzen," in Fremdenfeindlichkeit in Der Polizei? Ergebnisse Einer Wissenschaftlichen Studie, ed. Polizei-Führungsakademie (Lübeck: Schmidt-Römhild, 1996); PUA, Bericht Des Parlamentarischen Untersuchungsausschusses Vom 13.11.1996 (Hamburg: Bürgerschaft der freien Hansestadt Hamburg, 1996); Gerda Maibach, Polizisten Und Gewalt. Innenansichten Aus Dem Polizeialltag (Reinbeck: Rohwolt, 1996); Matthias Mletzko and Cornelia Weins, "Polizei Und Fremdenfeindlichkeit. ," Monatsschrift für Kriminologie und Strafrechtsreform 82, no. 2 (1998).

61 Original in German, Roland Eckert, Johannes Jungbauer, and Helmut Willems, "Polizei Und Fremde. Belastungssituationen Und Die Genese Von Feindbildern Und Übergriffen," in Wiederkehr Des "Volksgeistes"? Ethnizität, Konflikt Und Bewältigung, ed. Roland Eckert (Opladen: Leske und Budrich, 1998), 224.

62 Nora Rebekka Krott, Eberhard Krott, and Ines Zeitner, "Xenophobic Attitudes in German Police Officers: A Longitudinal Investigation from Professional Education to Practice," International journal of police science & management 20, no. 3 (2018).

63 MNJRC, Trust in Policing: The Role of White Supremacy (Roseville, MN: Minnesota Justice Research Center, 2021), 11.

64 Robin D Barnes, "Blue by Day and White by (K) Night: Regulating the Political Affiliations of Law Enforcement and Military Personnel," Iowa Law Review 81, no. 4 (1995): 1079.

65 Vida B. Johnson, "Kkk in the Pd: White Supremacist Police and What to Do About It," Lewis & Clark Law Review 23, no. 1 (2019): 205.

66 Jasmine R Silver et al., "Traditional Police Culture, Use of Force, and Procedural Justice: Investigating Individual, Organizational, and Contextual Factors," Justice Quarterly 34, no. 7 (2017).

67 HKE, Polizeiliche Alltagserfahrungen – Herausforderungen Und Erfordernisse Einer Lernenden Organisation (Wiesbaden: Hessisches Ministerium des Innern und für Sport, 2020).

68 Ibid., 17.

69 Ibid., 18.

70 Two reports by the „Working Group Commando Special Forces” (an intermediary report and the final report) are available: GenInspBw, Zwischenbericht Zur Umsetzung Des Maßnahmenkatalogs Der Arbeitsgruppe Kommando Spezialkräfte (Ag Ksk) (Berlin: Generalinspekteur der Bundeswehr, Bundesministerium der Verteidigung, 2020); Abschlussbericht Zur Umsetzung Des Maßnahmenkatalogs Der Arbeitsgruppe Kommando Spezialkräfte (Berlin: Generalinspekteur der Bundeswehr, Bundesministerium der Verteidigung, 2021).

71 A summary of the “Independent Commission’s” main findings was published in 2019: Heinz Fromm, "Zusammenfassung Des Untersuchungsberichts," (Unabhängige Kommission, 2019). URL: https://fragdenstaat.de/blog/2019/11/29/sek-kommission-zusammenfassung/.

72 A summary of the main findings of the “Expert Staff on the Reorganization of the SEK” was published by the Hessen Ministry of the Interior (HMdIS) on August 26, 2021: HMdIS, "„Sek-Auflösung War Unumgänglich, Neustart Hat Begonnen“," Hessisches Ministerium des Innern und für Sport, https://innen.hessen.de/Presse/SEK-Aufloesung-war-unumgaenglich-Neustart-hat-begonnen.

73 Donna Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia. A Socio-Cultural Inquiry. (Ottawa, Canada: Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada, 1997); Commission-of-Inquiry, Dishonoured Legacy. The Lessons of the Somalia Affair. Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Deployment of Canadian Forces to Somalia (Ottawa, Canada: Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada, 1997); Razack, Dark Threats and White Knights: The Somalia Affair, Peacekeeping, and the New Imperialism.

74 Brereton, The Inspector-General of the Australian Defence Force Afghanistan Inquiry Report.

75 Ibid.

76 Samantha Crompvoets, Blood Lust, Trust & Blame, ed. Louise Adler, Kindle ed., In the National Interest (Clayton, Australia: Monash University Publishing, 2021).

77 USSOCOM, United States Special Operation Command Comprehensive Review (United States Special Operations Command, 2020).

78 See for example the Australian, Canadian, and U.S. reports and case studies: Brereton, The Inspector-General of the Australian Defence Force Afghanistan Inquiry Report; Crompvoets, Blood Lust, Trust & Blame, 20; Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia. A Socio-Cultural Inquiry. ; Commission-of-Inquiry, Dishonoured Legacy. The Lessons of the Somalia Affair. Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Deployment of Canadian Forces to Somalia; Cole, Code over Country: The Tragedy and Corruption of Seal Team Six.

79 CBS/AP, "Marine Ss Photo Riles Major U.S. Jewish Group," CBS News, February 10 2012.

80 Haley Britzky, "100 Women Have Now Graduated Us Army Ranger School," Taks and Purpose, March 11 2022.

81 AP, "1st Female Sailor Completes Navy Special Warfare Training " Voice of America, July 17 2021.

82 Amina Vieth, "Warum Gibt Es Kaum Frauen Bei Den Spezialkräften?," Bundeswehr.de, October 7 2021.

83 Thomas S Szayna et al., Considerations for Integrating Women into Closed Occupations in Us Special Operations Forces (Santa Monica: Rand Corporation, 2016).

84 Britta Mahrholz, "Eine Frau Führt Hannovers Harte Jungs," Neue Presse, August 25 2014.

85 T Dahle, "Women and Swat: Making Entry into Police Tactical Teams" (paper presented at the Law Enforcement Executive Forum, 2015), 21.

86 Mary Dodge, Laura Valcore, and Frances Gomez, "Women on Swat Teams: Separate but Equal?," Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 34, no. 4 (2011): 699.

87 Lolita C. Baldor, "Us Military’s Elite Commando Forces Look to Expand Diversity," ABC News, June 16 2021.

88 Sheila Nataraj Kirby, Margaret C. Harrell, and Jennifer Sloan, "Why Don’t Minorities Join Special Operations Forces?," Armed Forces & Society 26, no. 4 (2000): 538.

89 Chris Wilson, "Nostalgia, Entitlement and Victimhood: The Synergy of White Genocide and Misogyny," Terrorism and Political Violence (2020); Bettina Rottweiler, Caitlin Clemmow, and Paul Gill, "Misogyny, Violent Extremism and Interpersonal Violence: Examining the Mediating and Contingent Effects of Revenge Motivation, Hypermasculinity, Collective Narcissism and Group Threats. ," Preprint (2021); Elizabeth Pearson, "Extremism and Toxic Masculinity: The Man Question Re-Posed," International Affairs 95, no. 6 (2019); David Meiering, Aziz Dziri, and Naika Foroutan, "Connecting Structures: Resistance, Heroic Masculinity and Anti-Feminism as Bridging Narratives within Group Radicalization," International Journal of Conflict and Violence (IJCV) 14, no. 2 (2020).

90 Harris, Gringart, and Drake, Military Retirement: Reflections from Former Members of Special Operations Forces, 10.

91 e.g., Seth A. Buckley, "Undermined, Overused, and Mission Obsessed: An Analysis of the Erosion of Ethics and the Proliferation of Combat Culture in Special Operation Forces" (Naval Postgraduate School, 2021).

92 Peter B. Kraskaa and Derek J. Paulsenb, "Grounded Research into U.S. Paramilitary Policing: Forging the Iron Fist inside the Velvet Glove," Policing and Society 7, no. 4 (1997).

93 Peter B Kraska and Victor E Kappeler, "Militarizing American Police: The Rise and Normalization of Paramilitary Units," Social problems 44, no. 1 (1997).

94 Christopher J. Coyne and Abigail R. Hall-Blanco, "Foreign Intervention, Police Militarization, and Minorities," Peace Review 28, no. 2 (2016): 166.

95 Don Ivie and Brett Garland, "Stress and Burnout in Policing: Does Military Experience Matter?," Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 34, no. 1 (2011).

96 Samantha Crompvoets, "Special Operations Command (Socomd) Culture and Interactions: Perceptions, Reputation and Risk," (2016), 6–7.

97 Philipps, Alpha: Eddie Gallagher and the War for the Soul of the Navy Seals, 11.

98 Ibid., 72.

99 Cole, Code over Country: The Tragedy and Corruption of Seal Team Six, 51.

100 Ibid., 127.

101 Philipps, Alpha: Eddie Gallagher and the War for the Soul of the Navy Seals, 68.

102 Ibid., 79.

103 Daniel Koehler, "Dying for the Cause? The Logic and Function of Ideologically Motivated Suicide, Martyrdom, and Self-Sacrifice within the Contemporary Extreme Right," Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression 14, no. 2 (2020).

104 E.g., Cole, Code over Country: The Tragedy and Corruption of Seal Team Six.

105 See for example Julian Staib and Philip Eppelsheim, "Muckibude Von Rechtsextremen," Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, June 23 2021.

106 See for example Miller-Idriss, The Extreme Gone Mainstream: Commercialization and Far Right Youth Cuture in Germany; Mattias Gardell, Gods of the Blood: The Pagan Revival and White Separatism (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003).

107 Samuel P Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil–Military Relations (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 91–92.

108 See Amy Ross Arguedas et al., Echo Chambers, Filter Bubbles, and Polarisation: A Literature Review (Oxford: Reuters Institute University of Oxford, 2022), 10.

109 E.g., N. F. Johnson et al., "Hidden Resilience and Adaptive Dynamics of the Global Online Hate Ecology," Nature (2019); Savvas Zannettou et al., "What Is Gab: A Bastion of Free Speech or an Alt-Right Echo Chamber" (paper presented at the Companion Proceedings of the The Web Conference 2018, 2018).

110 Harris, Gringart, and Drake, Military Retirement: Reflections from Former Members of Special Operations Forces, 10.

111 Donald T Campbell, "Common Fate, Similarity, and Other Indices of the Status of Aggregates of Persons as Social Entities," Behavioral science 3, no. 1 (1958).

112 Mohammad Atari et al., "Morally Homogeneous Networks and Radicalism," Social Psychological and Personality Science (2022).

113 Harris, Gringart, and Drake, "Leaving Ideological Groups Behind: A Model of Disengagement."

114 Ibid.

115 Siniša Malešević, Why Humans Fight: The Social Dynamics of Close-Range Violence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022).

116 Crompvoets, Blood Lust, Trust & Blame, 13–25.

117 Fromm, "Zusammenfassung Des Untersuchungsberichts."

118 Max Weber, Wirtschaft Und Gesellschaft: Grundriß Der Verstehenden Soziologie, 5th ed. (Tübingen: Mohr, 1980), 662.

119 Maren Tomforde, "Combat Soldiers and Their Experiences of Violence: Returning to Post-Heroic Societies?," in Handbook of the Sociology of the Military, ed. Giuseppe Caforio and Marina Nuciari (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018).

120 E.g., through books, TV shows, video games, and Hollywood movies

121 Jose Liht and Sara Savage, "Preventing Violent Extremism through Value Complexity: Being Muslim Being British," Journal of Strategic Security 6, no. 4 (2013); Leor Zmigrod, Peter Jason Rentfrow, and Trevor W Robbins, "Cognitive Inflexibility Predicts Extremist Attitudes," Frontiers in psychology 10 (2019).

122 Sandy Schumann et al., "Does Cognitive Inflexibility Predict Violent Extremist Behaviour Intentions? A Registered Direct Replication Report of Zmigrod Et Al., 2019," Legal and Criminological Psychology n/a, no. n/a (2021).

123 Bruno Bonfá‐Araujo, Atsushi Oshio, and Nelson Hauck‐Filho, "Seeing Things in Black‐and‐White: A Scoping Review on Dichotomous Thinking Style," Japanese Psychological Research (2021).

124 Michael A. Hogg, Arie Kruglanski, and Kees van den Bos, "Uncertainty and the Roots of Extremism," Journal of Social Issues 69, no. 3 (2013).

125 Roger Griffin, "The Role of Heroic Doubling in Ideologically Motivated State and Terrorist Violence," International review of psychiatry 29, no. 4 (2017).

126 Scott Atran, "The Role of the Devoted Actor in War, Revolution and Terrorism," in The Cambridge Companion to Religion and Terrorism, ed. James R Lewis (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017).

127 Crompvoets, Blood Lust, Trust & Blame, 24.

128 See for example Nicole Alexander and Lyla Kohistany, "Dispelling the Myth of Women in Special Operations," (Center for a New American Security, 2019).

129 As shown in Philipps, Alpha: Eddie Gallagher and the War for the Soul of the Navy Seals.