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Research Note

State Legitimacy and Counterinsurgency: A Comparative Perspective

Received 06 Oct 2023, Accepted 24 Mar 2024, Published online: 03 Apr 2024
 

Abstract

This article addresses the overlooked aspect of state legitimacy in counterinsurgency, emphasizing its crucial connection. Through comparative case studies of Afghanistan, the Philippines, and Bolivia, it highlights the challenges and importance of legitimacy building in different contexts. Moreover, it argues that by fulfilling the basic needs of ordinary people, governments can enhance legitimacy, proposing a new framework centered on regime performance. Ultimately, it advocates for a holistic approach that prioritizes state performance through the provision of core statehood services i.e., security, judiciary, and governance to effectively combat insurgencies.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

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3 David Fitzgerald, Learning to Forget US Army Counterinsurgency Doctrine and Practice from Vietnam to Iraq. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2013), 26.

4 Field Manual (FM) 3–24: Counterinsurgency. December 2009, Revised Edition. (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 2014), 9.

5 Kenneth Swope, “General Zuo’s Counter-Insurgency Doctrine.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 30, no. 4–5 (August 2019): 65–67.

6 Field Manual (FM) 3–24: Counterinsurgency. December 2009, Revised Edition, 11.

7 Jacqueline Hazelton, “The ‘Hearts and Minds’ Fallacy: Violence, Coercion, and Success in Counterinsurgency Warfare.” International Security 42, no. 1 (May 2017): 88–113.

8 Carsten F. Roennfeldt, “Conducting Counterinsurgency with Productive Power.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 27, no. 2 (March 2016): 39–42.

9 John Stuart Mill, “A Few Words on Non-Intervention.” New England Review (1990) 27, no. 3 (2006): 59–64.

10 Brian Urlacher, “20 Years on, Bush’s promise of democracy in Iraq fall shot,” (University of North Dakota’s official News sources, 2023), 7.

11 ibid, 7.

12 Mark Peceny and William D. Stanley, “Counterinsurgency in El Salvador.” Politics & Society 38, no. 1 (April 2010): 67–94.

13 Faiz Ahmed, Afghanistan Rising: Islamic Law and Statecraft between the Ottoman and British Empires. (Harvard University Press, 2017), 2–4.

14 Robert Aura Smith, Philippine Freedom, 1946-1958. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1958), 67–70.

15 Herbert Klein S, A Concise History of Bolivia, 3rd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022), 19.

16 Vina A. Lanzona, Amazons of the Huk Rebellion: Gender, Sex, and Revolution in the Philippines. (University of Wisconsin Press, 2009), 35.

17 Max Weber, Politics as a Vocation (Routledge, 2009), 24–27.

18 ibid, 25.

19 Jack Barbalet, “Violence and Politics: Reconsidering Weber’s “Politics as a Vocation.” Sociology (Oxford) 55, no. 1 (August 2021): 56–70.

20 Weber, Politics as a Vocation, 24.

21 Jeremy Bentham, Anarchical Fallacious: Being an Examination of the Declaration of Rights. (Wealth of Nations, 2015), 17.

22 David Beetham, The Legitimation of Power. (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, 1991), 9.

23 Fragile States Index. Political Indicators. P1State legitimacy, 11.

24 ibid, 11.

25 Matthew Saul, “Popular Governance of Post-Conflict Reconstruction: The Role of International Law.” In Popular Governance of Post-Conflict Reconstruction, iii–iii, (March 2014), 12–14.

26 Weber, Politics as a Vocation, 26.

27 Christopher Adair-Toteff, “Pedro T. Magallanes (2021): The Legitimacy of Modern Democracy. A Study on the Political Thought of Max Weber, Carl Schmitt and Hans Kelsen.” Österreichische Zeitschrift Für Politikwissenschaft 50, no. 2 (December 2021): 25–29.

28 ibid, 27.

29 Weber, Politics as a Vocation, 25.

30 Jonas Tallberg, Karin Bäckstrand, and Jan Aart Scholte, Legitimacy in Global Governance: Sources, Processes, and Consequences, 1st ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 89–90.

31 Julien Barbara, “Antipodean Statebuilding: The Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands and Australian Intervention in the South Pacific.” Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding 2, no. 2 (July 2008): 49–58.

32 ibid, 51.

33 Terrence Lyons, Demilitarizing Politics: Elections on the Uncertain Road to Peace, 1st ed. (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2005), 76–78.

34 Redie Bereketeab, “State Legitimacy and Government Performance in the Horn of Africa.” African Studies (Johannesburg) 79, no. 1 (2020): 51–69.

35 Adair-Toteff & Adair-Toteff, “Legitimacy of Modern Democracy,” 23–25.

36 ibid, 23.

37 Mao Zedong, Selected Works of Mao Tse-Tung, vol II. (Oxford, England: Pergamon Press, 1975), 79.

38 David Galula and John A. Nagl, Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice, 1st Indian ed. New Delhi: (Pentagon Press, 2010), 15–17.

39 Robert Taber, The War of the Flea: a Study of Guerrilla Warfare Theory and Practise. (NewYork: Stuart, 1965), 23.

40 Robert Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency: the Lessons of Malaya and Vietnam. (Saint Petersburg, FL: Hailer Publishing, 2005), 28–31.

41 Galula, Counterinsurgency Warfare, 21

42 Zedong, Selected Works, 79.

43 Andrew Bingham Kennedy, “Can the Weak Defeat the Strong? Mao’s Evolving Approach to Asymmetric Warfare in Yan’an.” The China Quarterly (London) 196, no. 196 (2008): 88–94.

44 ibid, 89.

45 Christopher R. Day and William S. Reno, “In Harm’s Way: African Counter-Insurgency and Patronage Politics.” Civil Wars 16, no. 2 (August 2014): 26–31.

46 Christopher R. Day and William S. Reno, “In Harm’s Way: African Counter-Insurgency and Patronage Politics.” Civil Wars 16, no. 2 (April 2014): 27.

47 ibid.

48 ibid, 28.

49 Bernard B. Fall, “The Theory and Practice of Insurgency and counterinsurgency.” Naval War College Review 17, no. 8 (1965): 20–38.

50 Connor O’Neill, “Terrorism, Insurgency and the Military Response from South Armagh to Falluja.” RUSI Journal 149, no. 5 (January 2004): 22.27.

51 Counterinsurgency Manuel, 7.

52 ibid, 7.

53 O’Neill, “Terrorism, Insurgency and the Military Response,” 22–27.

54 Hiroaki Hamana, “Review on New Development Strategies to ‘Fragile States’ from the Point of Forming a New Development Norm.” Journal of International Development Studies 18, no. 2 (May 2009): 93–98.

55 Samuel Greene, “Pathological Counterinsurgency: The Failure of Imposing Legitimacy in El Salvador, Afghanistan, and Iraq.” Third World Quarterly 38, no. 3 (2017): 79–88.

56 Nathan Constantin Leites and Charles Wolf Jr., Rebellion and Authority: An Analytic Essay on Insurgent Conflicts. New York University Journal of International Law and Politics 4, no. 1 (1971): 108–161.

57 Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict. (University of California Press, 1985), 77–79.

58 Edward N. Luttwak, Dead End: Counterinsurgency Warfare as Military Malpractice. Harper’s (New York, N.Y.). Vol. 314. Harper’s Magazine Foundation, 2007), 43.

59 James F. Glynn, “Chapter 11: El Salvador, Iraq, and Strategic Considerations for Counterinsurgency.” Short of General War: Perspectives on the Use of Military Power in the 21st Century. (Strategic Studies Institute, 2010), 32.

60 Greene, “Pathological Counterinsurgency,” 81–82.

61 Ivan Arreguín-Toft, “How the Weak Win Wars: A Theory of Asymmetric Conflict.” International Security 26, no. 1 (May 2001): 93–128.

62 Arreguin, “How the Weak Win Wars,” 94.

63 Kaplan, The Insurgents, 364. At the same time, it is important to note that the British engaged in forced relocation of much of Malaya’s Chinese population and other acts of significant brutality against non-combatants, suggesting that even in so-called ‘model’ campaigns, ‘winning hearts and minds’ remains complicated by significant violence.

64 Lisa Karlborg, “International Quest for Local Legitimacy in Afghanistan: A Tower of Babel?” Small Wars & Insurgencies 24, no. 2 (December 2013): 69–71.

65 Greene, “Pathological counterinsurgency,” 83.

66 Ahmad Murid Partaw, “The Failure of Democracy in Afghanistan.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies ahead-of-print, no. ahead-of-print (March 2023): 19–20.

67 Niels Terpstra, “Rebel Governance, Rebel Legitimacy, and External Intervention: Assessing Three Phases of Taliban Rule in Afghanistan.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 31, no. 6 (May 2020): 73–75.

68 Terpstra, “Rebel Governance,” 73.

69 Greene, “Pathological counterinsurgency,” 84–86.

70 Transparency International: The Global coalition against corruption 2021 Corruption Perceptions Index - Explore the - Transparency.org.

71 Sarah Chayes, “What Vali Nasr Gets Wrong.” The Washington Post, WP Company, 19 Nov. 2014, www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/what-vali-nasr-gets-wrong/2014/11/19/e26f14a8-6fb6-.

72 Chayes, “What Vali Nasr Gets Wrong.”

73 In 2005, Transparency International ranked corruption in Afghanistan as 117 out of 159 countries surveyed; in 2013, corruption in Afghanistan was ranked 175 out 177 countries.

74 Vanda Felbab-Brown, “Afghanistan in 2013: On the Cusp…or on the Brink?” Asian Survey 54, no. 1 (2014): 69–76.

75 Greene, “Pathological counterinsurgency,” 85.

76 Peter Baker, “How Obama Came to Plan for ‘Surge’ in Afghanistan - New YorkTimes.” https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/06/world/asia/06reconstruct.html (accessed May 1, 2023).

77 Natalie Delia Deckard, and Zacharias Pieri, “The Implications of Endemic Corruption for State Legitimacy in Developing Nations: An Empirical Exploration of the Nigerian Case.” International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society 30, no. 4 (March 2017): 84–91.

78 ibid, 86.

79 Flebab-Brown, “Afghanistan in 2013: On the Cusp…or on the Brink?” 8.

80 Sebastion S. Kaempf, The US War in Afghanistan. In: Saving Soldiers or Civilians? Casualty-Aversion versus Civilian Protection in Asymmetric Conflicts. (Cambridge University Press; 2018), 155–157.

81 Marnie Ritchie, War Misguidance: Visualizing quagmire in the US War in Afghanistan. Media, War & Conflict, 16 (2023), 63–81.

82 Greene, “Pathological counterinsurgency,” 85.

83 ibid.

84 ibid, 86.

85 Christine C. Fair, “Afghanistan in 2017: Another Year of Running in Place.” Asian Survey 58, no. 1 (August 2018): 19–23.

86 Anderson Morten, “Legitimacy in State-Building: A Review of the IR Literature1: Legitimacy in State-Building.” International Political Sociology 6, no. 2 (April 2012): 205–255.

87 Lake David, “The Practice and Theory of US Statebuilding.” Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding 4, no. 3 (May 2010): 84–86.

88 Ali Jalali, “Forging Afghanistan’s National Unity Government.” Vol. 183. (Washington, D.C: United States Institute of Peace, 2015), 16–17.

89 Greene, “Pathological counterinsurgency,” 87.

90 Partaw, “The Failure of Democracy,” 18.

91 Kersti Larsdotter, “Regional Support for Afghan Insurgents: Challenges for Counterinsurgency Theory and Doctrine.” Journal of Strategic Studies 37, no. 1 (February 2014): 62–64.

92 Larsdotter, “Regional Support Insurgents,” 64.

93 Jennifer Murtazashvili, “The Collapse of Afghanistan.” Journal of Democracy 33, no. 1 (August 2022): 40–54.

94 Celeste Ward, Gventer Smith, M.L.R. and Jones D, The New Counter-Insurgency Era in Critical Perspective. (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 20–21.

95 ibid, 21.

96 Karlborg, “International quest for local legitimacy,” 23.

97 Jalali, “Forging Afghanistan’s National Unity Government,” 17.

98 Partaw, “The Failure of Democracy in Afghanistan,” 18–20.

99 Jocelyn Fritsch, “Understanding U.S. Civil-Military Cooperation in the U.S. Provincial Reconstruction Teams (PRTs) in Afghanistan.” ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2012, 19.

100 Robert Perito, The U.S. Experience with Provincial Reconstruction Teams in Afghanistan: Lessons Identified. (Washington, DC: U.S. Institute of Peace, 2005), 44.

101 ibid, 44.

102 Karlborg, “International Quest for Local Legitimacy,” 28.

103 ibid.

104 Greene, “Pathological Counterinsurgency,” 87.

105 Uldarico Baclagon, Lessons from the Huk Campaign in the Philippines. (Manila: Colcol Publisher, 1960), 43.

106 Lawrence M. Greenberg, The Hukbalahap Insurrection: A Case Study of a Successful Anti-Insurgency Operation in the Philippines, 1946-1955. (Washington, D.C: Army Center of Military History, 1987), 35–38.

107 Greenberg, The Hukbalahap Insurrection, 36.

108 Carlos P. Romulo and Marvin M. Gray, The Magsaysay Story. (New York: John Day, 1956), 16.

109 James Prescott, “The Myth and the Man: Philippine Politics and Philippine-American Relations, 1950-1957.” The Journal of American-East Asian Relations 23, no.1 (August 2016): 28–32.

110 Prescott, “The Myth and the Man,” 28–29.

111 ibid.

112 Andrew Lembke, Lansdale, Magsaysay, America, and the Philippines: A Case Study of Limited Intervention Counterinsurgency. (Kansas: US Army Combined Arms Center, 2013), 47.

113 ibid, 48.

114 Greenberg, The Hukbalahap Insurrection, 45.

115 Prescott, “the Myth and the Man,” 37–41.

116 ibid, 38.

117 Benedict J. Kerkvliet, The Huk Rebellion: A Study of Peasant Revolt in the Philippines. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977), 90–92.

118 Stanley L. Falk, “Crisis in the Pacific: The Battles for the Philippine Islands by the Men Who Fought Them.” Journal of American History. (Oxford: The Organization of American Historians, 1997), 13.

119 Jim Richardson, “The Huk Rebellion.” Journal of Contemporary Asia 8, no. 2 (1978): 31–33.

120 Prescott, “the Myth and the Man,” 30.

121 Jason Ridler, “The Fertile Ground of Hell’s Carnival: Charles T. R. Bohannan and the US Army’s Counter Intelligence Corps’ Investigations of War Criminals, Collaborators, and the Huk, in the Philippines 1945-1947.” Defense & Security Analysis 33, no. 1 (May 2017): 15–29.

122 Ridler, “The Fertile Ground,” 23–28.

123 Greenberg, The Hukbalahap Insurrection, 38.

124 Davis Leonard, Revolutionary Struggle in the Philippines, 1st ed. (London: Palgrave Macmillan Limited, 1989), 113.

125 ibíd, 113.

126 Renato Cruz De Castro, “Abstract of Counter-Insurgency in the Philippines and the Global War on Terror. Examining the Dynamics of the Twenty-First Century Long Wars.” European Journal of East Asian Studies 9, no. 1 (July 2010): 60–67.

127 William J. Pomeroroy, The Forest: A personal Record of the Huk Guerrilla Struggle in the Philippines. (New York: International Publishers, 1963), 45.

128 William Chapman, Inside the Philippine Revolution. (New York: Norton, 1987), 78–79.

129 De Castro, “Abstract of Counter-Insurgency,” 62–63.

130 Chapman, Inside the Philippine Revolution, 79.

131 Ridler, “The Fertile Ground,” 25.

132 Dennis M. Rempe, “Anthony James Joes, America and Guerrilla Warfare; and Anthony James. Hill Joes, Resisting Rebellion: The History and Politics of Counterinsurgency.” Journal of Cold War Studies. (Cambridge. MIT Press, 2008), 197.

133 ibid, 198.

134 Thomas M. Davies, Gary Prado Salmon, and John Deredita, “The Defeat of Che Guevara: Military Response to Guerrilla Challenge in Bolivia.” The Hispanic American Historical Review 71, no. 4 (April 1991): 80–82.

135 Gabriel Careaga, “Che Guevara: The Legend of the Revolutionary Guerrilla, from a Sickly Adolescent to a Man of Action.” Estudios políticos (Mexico), no. 27 (May 2001): 38–39.

136 ibid, 39.

137 Andrew Sinclair. Che Guevara. (New York: The History Press, 2013), 18–23.

138 Ryan Henry Butterfield, The Fall of Che Guevara: a Story of Soldiers, Spies, and Diplomats. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).

139 Joes Anthony James, America and Guerilla Warfare. (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2000), 23–25.

140 Butterfield, The Fall of Che Guevara, 13–14.

141 Jacob Cole, “The Bolivian Insurgency of 1967: Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara’s Final Mission.” Honors thesis—(University of South Florida, 2001), 18.

142 ibid.

143 Butterfield, The Fall of Che Guevara, 14.

144 Guevara, Che, and David. Deutschmann, Che Guevara Reader: Writings by Ernesto Che Guevara on Guerrilla Strategy, Politics & Revolution. (Melbourne: Ocean Press, 1997), 48–49.

145 Sinclair, Che Guevara, 19.

146 Robert Alexander, The Bolivarian Presidents: Conversations and Correspondence with Presidents of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela. (Westport, Conn: Praeger, 1994), 31–34.

147 ibid, 33.

148 Alexander, The Bolivarian Presidents, 32.

149 Cole, “The Bolivian Insurgency of 1967,” 17–18.

150 Joes, “America and Guerilla Warfare,” 22–23.

151 Sinclair, Che Guevara, 19–20.

152 Regis Debray, Revolution in the Revolution. (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1968), 19.

153 Ernesto Che Guevara, The Motorcycle Diaries. (New York: Ocean Press, 2003), 34.

154 Rich Paul B, “People’s War Antithesis: Che Guevara and the Mythology of Focismo.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 28, no. 3 (May 2017): 82–87.

155 ibid, 84.

156 Daniel Castro, Revolution and Revolutionaries: Guerilla Movements in Latina America. (Wilmington Books, 1999), 78.

157 Castro, Revolution and Revolutionaries, 76–78.

158 Ernesto Che, Episodes of the Cuban Revolutionary War, 1956-58 1st ed. (New York: Pathfinder, 1996), 18–22.

159 ibid, 22.

160 Alexander, The Bolivarian Presidents, 19.

161 Butterfield, The Fall of Che Guevara, 32–33.

162 Spencer David E., and Hugo Acha Melgar, “Bolivia, a New Model Insurgency for the 21st Century: From Mao Back to Lenin.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 28, no. 3 (August 2017): 60–63.

163 Dosal Paul J., Comandante Che: Guerrilla Soldier, Commander, and Strategist, 1956-1967. (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003), 27.

164 Gordon H. McCormick, “The Revolutionary Odyssey of Che Guevara.” Queen’s Quarterly 105, no. 2 (1998): 182–183.

165 Che, Episodes of the Cuban Revolutionary, 77.

166 Murtazashvili, “The Collapse of Afghanistan,”19–20.

167 Jan Selby, “The Myth of Liberal Peacebuilding.” Conflict, Security, and Development, 13 (September 2015): 56–57.

168 Prescott, “the Myth and the Man,” 32–33.

169 Greenberg, The Hukbalahap Insurrection, 44.

170 ibid, 33.

171 David MacMichael, “Philippines: Huk Rebellion, Encyclopedia of Conflicts Since. World War II, no. 1 (May 2013): 19–53.

172 Butterfield, The Fall of Che Guevara, 72.

173 ibid.

174 Paul J. Dosal, Comandante Che: Guerrilla Soldier, Commander, and Strategist, 1956-1967. (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003), 28–29.

175 Dosal, Comandante Che, 28.

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