Rainfall variability and labor allocation in Uzbekistan: the role of women’s empowerment

Figures & data

Table 1. Descriptive statistics.

	N = 1,618
Variables:	Mean	S.D.	Min.	Max.
Occupational choice:
Having own business	0.10	0.29	0.00	1.00
Salaried employment	0.47	0.50	0.00	1.00
Self-employed	0.08	0.28	0.00	1.00
Irregular employment	0.12	0.32	0.00	1.00
Out of labor force	0.14	0.34	0.00	1.00
Unemployed	0.10	0.30	0.00	1.00
Employed in agricultural sector	0.16	0.36	0.00	1.00
Employed in non-agricultural sector	0.61	0.49	0.00	1.00
Women’s empowerment	2.05	1.16	0.00	4.00
Average temperature	14.39	1.76	10.12	27.60
Rainfall variability (RV)	0.22	0.03	0.17	0.29
Male	0.51	0.50	0.00	1.00
Age	35.51	11.53	18	76
Higher education	0.20	0.40	0.00	1.00
Urban	0.44	0.50	0.00	1.00
Household size	3.34	1.42	1.00	7.00

Note: S.D. stands for standard deviations. Min. and Max. are minimum and maximum values of variables, respectively.

Figure 1. The distribution of answers to the women’s empowerment question. The figure shows the shares of respondents who (0) disagreed with all statements regarding women’s empowerment, (1) agreed with one statement, (2) agreed with two statements, (3) agreed with three statements, and (4) agreed with all four statements, as described in the article text.

Source: Authors’ construction.

Table 2. Agricultural and non-agricultural sectors – marginal effects.

	Agricultural sector	Non-agricultural sector	Out of labor force
Urban area
Average temperature	−0.010	0.065**	0.009
	(0.013)	(0.027)	(0.006)
Rainfall variability	−1.699**	−0.155	1.022
	(0.792)	(1.749)	(1.226)
Observations	708	708	708
Rural area
Average temperature	−0.014	−0.004	0.052**
	(0.026)	(0.025)	(0.020)
Rainfall variability	1.688	3.070**	−3.356***
	(2.077)	(1.466)	(1.228)
Observations	910	910	910

Notes: ***, **, and * correspond to 1%, 5%, and 10% significance levels, respectively. Multinomial logit results (marginal effects) are presented. Robust standard errors are clustered at the locality level. All specifications include individual characteristics and regional fixed effects. Individual characteristics include gender, age and its square, a dummy for having higher education, and household size.

Table 3. Agricultural and non-agricultural sectors – marginal effects – by gender.

	Urban			Rural
	Agricultural sector	Non-agricultural sector	Out of labor force	Agricultural sector	Non-agricultural sector	Out of labor force
Women
Average temperature	−0.021	0.024	0.006	−0.050**	0.035	0.099***
	(0.057)	(0.038)	(0.020)	(0.024)	(0.028)	(0.031)
Rainfall variability	−0.786	−3.388	2.657	3.945**	0.828	−6.046***
	(1.098)	(2.952)	(2.301)	(1.698)	(1.329)	(1.871)
Observations	365	365	365	430	430	430
Men
Average temperature	−0.004	0.158	0.045	0.019	−0.025	0.011
	(0.009)	(0.295)	(0.000)	(0.049)	(0.050)	(0.017)
Rainfall variability	−2.087	5.337	−3.084	−0.620	4.955**	−0.595
	(1.269)	(16.253)	(0.000)	(2.599)	(2.520)	(1.313)
Observations	343	343	343	480	480	480

Notes: ***, **, and * correspond to 1%, 5%, and 10% significance levels, respectively. All regression results include individual characteristics and regional fixed effects. Individual characteristics include gender, age and its square, a dummy for having higher education, and household size. Robust standard errors are clustered at the locality level.

Table 4. Occupational choices – marginal effects – rural and urban areas.

	Business	Employed	Self-employed	Irregular	Out of labor force
Urban area
Temperature	−0.002	0.068***	−0.012	−0.005	0.015**
	(0.002)	(0.019)	(0.040)	(0.047)	(0.006)
Rainfall variability	2.817***	−1.376	−0.639	−2.767***	1.123
	(0.617)	(1.825)	(0.672)	(1.038)	(1.252)
Observations	708	708	708	708	708
Rural area
Temperature	0.012**	0.014	−0.024	−0.018	0.051**
	(0.006)	(0.029)	(0.017)	(0.013)	(0.020)
Rainfall variability	−0.710*	1.195	1.350	2.764***	−3.297***
	(0.410)	(1.305)	(0.993)	(0.769)	(1.191)
Observations	910	910	910	910	910

Notes: ***, **, and * correspond to 1%, 5%, and 10% significance levels, respectively. Multinomial logit results (marginal effects) are presented. Robust standard errors are clustered at the locality level. All specifications include individual characteristics and regional fixed effects. Individual characteristics include gender, age, and its square, a dummy for having higher education, and household size.

Table 5. Main results – marginal effects – by gender.

	Urban					Rural
	Business	Employed	Self-employed	Irregular	Out of labor force	Business	Employed	Self-employed	Irregular	Out of labor force
Women
Temperature	0.000	0.043**	−0.022	−0.037	0.022	0.006	0.020	−0.048*	0.011	0.094***
	(0.006)	(0.020)	(0.056)	(0.031)	(0.014)	(0.018)	(0.026)	(0.026)	(0.011)	(0.035)
Rainfall variability	3.325***	−4.305*	−0.881	−1.387***	1.966	−0.685	2.303*	2.022	0.931*	−5.992***
	(0.301)	(2.612)	(1.109)	(0.408)	(1.904)	(1.063)	(1.233)	(1.272)	(0.560)	(2.076)
Observations	365	365	365	365	365	430	430	430	430	430
Men
Temperature	−0.018	0.044	-	0.141	0.038	0.009	0.004	0.023	−0.036	0.008
	(0.050)	(0.146)		(0.108)	(0.295)	(0.017)	(0.046)	(0.028)	(0.023)	(0.018)
Rainfall variability	3.364	2.152	-	−2.689	−2.769	−0.856	−0.441	1.388	4.027***	−0.561
	(2.256)	(9.841)		(5.272)	(19.938)	(0.981)	(1.976)	(1.225)	(1.103)	(1.351)
Observations	343	343		343	343	480	480	480	480	480

Notes: ***, **, and * correspond to 1%, 5%, and 10% significance levels, respectively. Robust standard errors are clustered at the locality level. All regressions include regional fixed effects. The sample contains only one observation for a self-employed male in urban areas, and therefore this category is not estimated.

Table 6. Women’s empowerment – agricultural and non-agricultural sectors – marginal effects.

	Agricultural sector	Non-agricultural sector	Out of labor force
Urban area
Average temperature	−0.013	0.069**	0.007
	(0.013)	(0.028)	(0.007)
Rainfall variability	−1.739**	0.224	0.767
	(0.848)	(1.818)	(1.272)
Women’s empowerment (default = disagree with all statements):
Agree with one statement	0.019***	0.078	−0.058**
	(0.005)	(0.047)	(0.026)
Agree with two statements	0.051***	0.038	−0.056
	(0.011)	(0.059)	(0.043)
Agree with three statements	0.010**	0.097**	−0.108***
	(0.005)	(0.042)	(0.041)
Agree with four statements	0.010	0.115***	−0.117***
	(0.011)	(0.034)	(0.032)
Observations	708	708	708
Rural area
Average temperature	−0.004	0.003	0.039**
	(0.029)	(0.028)	(0.020)
Rainfall variability	1.043	2.898	−2.514*
	(2.337)	(1.824)	(1.335)
Women’s empowerment (default = disagree with all statements):
Agree with one statement	0.095**	−0.082*	−0.070**
	(0.043)	(0.049)	(0.028)
Agree with two statements	0.102*	−0.009	−0.104***
	(0.058)	(0.066)	(0.034)
Agree with three statements	0.011	0.057	−0.099***
	(0.059)	(0.068)	(0.030)
Agree with four statements	0.039	−0.025	−0.043
	(0.079)	(0.058)	(0.043)
Observations	910	910	910

Notes: ***, **, and * correspond to 1%, 5%, and 10% significance levels, respectively. All regression results include individual characteristics and regional fixed effects. Individual characteristics include gender, age and its square, a dummy for having higher education, and household size. Robust standard errors are clustered at the locality level. See the section entitled “Women’s empowerment” for the definition of the women’s empowerment variable.

Table 7. Women’s empowerment – occupational choices – marginal effects.

	Business	Employed	Self-employed	Irregular	Out of labor force
Urban area
Average temperature	−0.001	0.078***	−0.027	−0.002	0.015**
	(0.002)	(0.020)	(0.038)	(0.046)	(0.007)
Rainfall variability	2.453***	−0.439	−0.758	−2.925***	0.897
	(0.830)	(2.240)	(0.706)	(0.976)	(1.305)
Women’s empowerment (default = disagree with all statements):
Agree with one statement	−0.052**	0.081*	0.126***	−0.022	−0.075***
	(0.025)	(0.047)	(0.023)	(0.020)	(0.023)
Agree with two statements	−0.023	0.035	0.145***	−0.030	−0.075**
	(0.030)	(0.063)	(0.021)	(0.028)	(0.038)
Agree with three statements	−0.065	0.106	0.140***	−0.031	−0.132***
	(0.053)	(0.082)	(0.025)	(0.020)	(0.049)
Agree with four statements	−0.012	0.116***	−0.006	0.026	−0.112***
	(0.031)	(0.037)	(0.018)	(0.032)	(0.032)
Observations	708	708	708	708	708
Rural area
Average temperature	0.012	0.044	−0.028	−0.027**	0.038*
	(0.008)	(0.034)	(0.025)	(0.013)	(0.020)
Rainfall variability	−0.421	−0.460	1.293	3.318***	−2.431*
	(0.515)	(1.755)	(1.499)	(0.829)	(1.285)
Women’s empowerment (default = disagree with all statements):
Agree with one statement	−0.038	0.021	0.062	−0.034	−0.062***
	(0.029)	(0.059)	(0.048)	(0.030)	(0.022)
Agree with two statements	−0.041	0.143	0.035	−0.051	−0.096***
	(0.026)	(0.094)	(0.078)	(0.033)	(0.028)
Agree with three statements	−0.004	0.159*	−0.019	−0.073*	−0.092***
	(0.025)	(0.090)	(0.078)	(0.038)	(0.026)
Agree with four statements	−0.012	0.082	−0.050	−0.015	−0.034
	(0.026)	(0.101)	(0.085)	(0.053)	(0.036)
Observations	910	910	910	910	910

Notes: ***, **, and * correspond to 1%, 5%, and 10% significance levels, respectively. All regression results include individual characteristics and regional fixed effects. Individual characteristics include gender, age and its square, a dummy for having higher education, and household size. Robust standard errors are clustered at the locality level. See the section entitled “Women’s empowerment” for the definition of the women’s empowerment variable.

Table 8. Secondary occupation – marginal effects.

	Baseline results			Results with women’s empowerment
	All	Urban	Rural	All	Urban	Rural
Average temperature	−0.009	−0.006	−0.017	−0.006	−0.003	−0.020
	(0.011)	(0.006)	(0.014)	(0.011)	(0.006)	(0.020)
Rainfall variability	0.877	−2.448	2.673***	0.744	−2.013	2.501***
	(0.737)	(1.841)	(0.735)	(0.648)	(1.911)	(0.823)
Women’s empowerment (default = disagree with all statements):
Agree with one statement	-	-	-	−0.013	0.029	−0.029
				(0.026)	(0.081)	(0.031)
Agree with two statements	-	-	-	0.037	0.066	0.005
				(0.031)	(0.083)	(0.039)
Agree with three statements	-	-	-	0.008	0.109	−0.112
				(0.051)	(0.076)	(0.085)
Agree with four statements	-	-	-	0.010	0.090	−0.047
				(0.049)	(0.082)	(0.075)
Observations	1,240	536	704	1,240	536	704

Notes: ***, **, and * correspond to 1%, 5%, and 10% significance levels, respectively. All regression results include individual characteristics and regional fixed effects. Individual characteristics include gender, age and its square, a dummy for having higher education, and household size. Robust standard errors are clustered at the locality level.