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Notes
1 CitationAlan Richards & John Waterbury, A Political Economy of the Middle East, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998); Seymour Martin Lipset, ‘Some social requisites of democracy: economic development and political legitimacy,’ American Political Science Review, 53 (1959), pp. 69–105; CitationTatu Vanhanen, Prospects of Democracy (New York: Routledge, 1997); and CitationSamuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968).
2 Eva CitationBellin, ‘The robustness of authoritarianism in the Middle East: exceptionalism in comparative perspective,’ Comparative Politics, 36 (2004), pp. 139–157.
3 James A. CitationBill & Robert Springborg, Politics in the Middle East, 5th ed. (New York: Addison, Wesley, Longman, 2000); CitationSamuel P. Huntington, ‘The clash of civilizations?,’ Foreign Affairs, 72 (1993), pp. 22–49; and CitationHenry M. Clement & Robert Springborg, Globalization and the Politics of Development in the Middle East (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
4 Dale Eickelman & Jon W. Anderson, ‘Redefining Muslim publics,’ in: Dale Eickelman & John Anderson (Eds) New Media in the Muslim World: The Emerging Public Sphere, 2nd ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003).
5 David Winston, ‘Digital democracy and the new age of reason,’ in: Henry Jenkins & David Thorburn (Eds) Democracy and New Media (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003); and CitationLawrence Lessig, The Future of Ideas: The Fate of Commons in the Digital World (New York: Random House, 2001).
6 CitationArab Advisors Group, Satellite TV in the Arab World (Amman: Arab Advisors Group, Citation2005).
7 CitationBenjamin Smith, ‘Oil wealth and regime survival in the developing world, 1960–1999, American Journal of Political Science, 48 (2004), pp. 232–246.
8 CitationRaymond Williams, Television, Technology, and Cultural Form (New York: Schocken, 1974).
9 Benjamin R. CitationBarber, ‘Which technology and which democracy?,’ in: Henry Jenkins & David Thorburn (Eds) Democracy and New Media (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003).
10 Eickelman & Anderson, ‘Redefining Muslim publics.’
11 Ithiel Citationde Sola Pool, Technologies of Freedom: On Free Speech in an Electronic Age (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983); and CitationWinston, ‘Digital democracy and the new age of reason.’
12 CitationPhilippe Schmitter, Guillermo O'Donnell & Lawrence Whitehead, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); and CitationLarry Diamond, Developing Democracy: Toward Consolidation (London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999).
13 The Freedom House Political Rights score measures indicators of a state's electoral process (e.g., free and fair elections of the executive and legislature, equal campaign opportunities, fair tabulation of votes, etc.); political pluralism and participation (e.g., the organization of opposition parties, a realistic chance for opposition parties to gain power, self-determination for minority groups); functioning government (e.g., elected officials determine policy, the government is accountable and free from pervasive corruption). For a complete list, see < http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page = 35&year = 2005> (accessed 12 October 2005).
14 CitationSteven Poe & C. N. Tate, ‘Repression of personal integrity in the 1980s: a global analysis,’ American Political Science Review, 88 (1994), pp. 853–872.
15 Although the imputation of missing data is becoming more acceptable in the social sciences, we believe the use of a probabilistic maximum likelihood imputational logarithm is not an acceptable substitute when the values it generates are so out of step with reality. The most egregious example of this is the large swing in adult literacy values generated. Year to year, this indicator should not change in value by 60–70 points! Yet such was the case when examining the imputed data. This is not an indictment of the imputational method in general, however. It is certainly worthwhile and useful when examining data across a wider cross-section of cases. Our experience was likely due to the relatively small sample of states examined. Regardless, we believe the time series method to be inappropriate given data measurement limitations for the states and years in question.
16 Arab Advisors Group, ISPs in the Arab World: A Market Overview and Analysis of Recent Mergers and Acquisitions in the Arab World's ISP Landscape (Amman: Arab Advisors Group, Citation2005).
17 Naomi Sakr, ‘Satellite television and development in the Middle East,’ Middle East Report, no. 210, Reform of Reaction: Dilemmas of Economic Development in the Middle East (Spring 1999).
18 Arab Advisors Group, Satellite TV in the Arab World (Amman: Arab Advisors Group, Citation2005).
19 Arab Advisors Group, Satellite TV in the Arab World (Amman: Arab Advisors Group, Citation2005)
20 Arab Advisors Group, FM Radio in the Arab World (Amman: Arab Advisors Group, Citation2005).
21 R. D. McKinlay & A. S. Cohen, ‘Performance and instability in military and nonmilitary regimes,’ American Political Science Review, 70 (1976), pp. 850–864.
22 CitationJill Crystal, ‘Authoritarianism and its adversaries in the Arab world,’ World Politics, 46 (1994), pp. 262–289.
23 CitationRobert W. Hefner, ‘Public Islam and the problem of democratization,’ Sociology of Religion, 62 (2001), pp. 491–514; Heiner CitationBielefeldt, ‘Muslim voices in the debate,’ Quarterly, 17 (1995), pp. 587–617; CitationMark Tessler, ‘Islam and democracy in the Middle East: the impact of religious orientations on attitudes toward democracy in four Arab countries,’ Comparative Politics, 34 (2002), pp. 337–354; and CitationSamuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996).
24 CitationRobert Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971).
25 CitationLipset, ‘Some social requisites of democracy’; CitationAdam Przeworski, Michael Alvarez, Jose A. Cheibub & Fernando Limongi, Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Material Well-being in the World (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000); and Charles CitationBoix, Democracy and Redistribution (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
26 Ross does show that certain states seem to disallow for democratization where oil revenue is a significant contributor. However, he does so by comparing those rentier states in the Middle East to non-oil-producing states in the West. This is problematic owing to the dramatic contrast in cases. Our approach gives greater clarity to the effects of oil production primarily because the study is a most similar systems analysis of states in a particular region. The primary difference between these states is the type of government. Thus, our study should allow for a more enhanced understanding of oil's impact on political rights in the MENA.
27 CitationGiacomo Luciani, ‘The oil rent, the fiscal crisis, and the state of democratization,’ in: G. Salame (Ed.) Democracy without Democrats? The Renewal of Politics in the Muslim World (London: I. B. Taurus, 1994); and CitationMichael Ross, ‘Does oil hinder democracy?,’ World Politics, 53 (2001), pp. 325–361.
28 Lipset, ‘Some social requisites of democracy.’
29 CitationMcKinlay & Cohen, ‘Performance and instability in military and nonmilitary regimes.’
30 Most of the variables had very low correlation scores—.4 and lower. The highest scores were found between regime type and religious fragmentation (.72) and the radio and television indicators (.70). The latter of these two is an intuitive finding, especially since these variables measure the availability of media hardware. Though the correlation between regime type and religious fragmentation is cause for some concern, we believe that both represent important state-specific characteristics that must remain in the models. The use of the robust standard errors, which makes it more difficult for each variable to achieve statistical significance, helps to compensate for whatever multicollinearity exists.
31 < http://gking.harvard.edu/stats.shtml> (accessed 12 October 2005).
32 Jabbar CitationAl–Obaidi, ‘Communication and the culture of democracy: global media and the promotion of democracy in the Middle East,’ International Journal of Instructional Media, 30 (2003), pp. 97–110.
33 CitationArab Advisors Group, ISPs in the Arab World.
34 Our sample of states is based on available data of satellite television subscribers per 1000 residents as facilitated by Eutelsat. We are careful, therefore, not to suggest that satellite television is a panacea for the MENA's troubled record on political rights, only that satellite technology conforms to our causal expectations as outlined above.
35 CitationSakr, ‘Satellite television and development in the Middle East.’
36 CitationBrian Calfano & Emile Sahliyeh, ‘Determining democracy in the organization of the Islamic Conference,’ Social Science Quarterly, 89 (2008), p. 3.