Communication error management in law enforcement interactions: a receiver’s perspective

Figures & data

Table 1. Overview of the messages used in the chat session in Study 1.

	Messages
Opening questions	1. ‘What is your name, student number and day of birth?’ 2. ‘Have you ever been suspected of exam fraud before?’ 3. ‘Did you perform the fraud that you are accused of? 4. ‘Can you tell me a bit more about that?’
Error manipulation	5. Factual: ‘Ok. So you are a Sociology student.’ Judgment ‘Ok. So you are a rather unmotivated student.’ No error: ‘Ok. So you were indeed there during the study.’
Response manipulation	6. Contradict: ‘I do not have it wrong.’ Apologize: ‘I had it wrong, I apologize.’ Accept/no error: ‘I have noted everything.’
Closing questions	7. ‘Do you have anything else to add?’ 8. ‘Ok. I believe I have enough information. I will contact you again in the near future to inform you about the procedure. Goodbye.’

Table 2. Means, standard deviations, and inter-correlations among study variables in Study 1.

Variables	M	SD	α	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1. Affective trust	2.01	0.82	.72
2. Rapport	2.88	0.53	.77	.54*
3. Hostility	2.48	0.80	.84	−.25*	−.21*
4. Willingness to provide info	2.22	0.99	.80	.59*	.37*	−.23*
5. Quantity of info provision (after error)	0.12	0.11		−.10	−.12	.06	−.09
6. Quality of info provision (after error)	1.07	1.08		.14	.12	−.10	.21*	−.36*
7. Quantity of info provision (after response)	0.07	0.07		.08	−.08	.02	−.03	−.06	−.02
8. Quality of info provision (after response)	0.11	0.63		.11	−.00	−.13	.19*	−.02	.11	.02

Note: N = 188.

*p < .05, calculated using 1000 bootstrapped resamples for each coefficient.

Table 3. Means and standard deviations for interviewing effectiveness measures as a function of communication error in Study 1.

Effectiveness measure	Communication error
	Control (N = 29)		Factual (N = 72)		Judgment (N = 87)
	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD
1. Affective trust	2.32	0.89	2.03	0.86	1.88^a	0.73
2. Rapport	3.09	0.39	2.90	0.54	2.79^a	0.54
3. Hostility	2.41	0.82	2.36	0.75	2.60	0.83
4. Willingness to provide info	2.52	0.95	2.29	0.95	2.07	1.02
5. Quantity of info provision (after error)	0.05	0.07	0.06^b	0.04	0.20^a,b	0.11
6. Quality of info provision (after error)	0.72	0.80	1.81^a,b	0.52	0.59^b	1.17

^aDiffers significantly from control, p < .05.

^bDiffers significantly from the other communication error, p < .05.

Table 4. Means and standard deviations for interviewing effectiveness measures as a function of response strategy in Study 1.

Effectiveness measure	Response strategies
	Control (N = 29)		Contradict (N = 54)		Apologize (N = 53)		Accept (N = 52)
	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD
1. Affective trust	2.32	0.89	1.67^a	0.73	1.98	0.72	2.20	0.85
2. Rapport	3.09	0.39	2.68^a	0.56	2.90^a	0.47	2.96	0.55
3. Hostility	2.41	0.82	2.70	0.73	2.35	0.81	2.41	0.83
4. Willingness to provide info	2.52	0.95	1.82^a	0.85	2.05^a	0.87	2.65	1.07
5. Quantity of info provision (after response)	0.06	0.07	0.09	0.07	0.06	0.05	0.06	0.06
6. Quality of info provision (after response)	−0.07	0.53	0.26	0.85	0.06	0.46	0.10	0.53

^aDiffers significantly from control, p < .05.

Table 5. Overview of the messages used in the chat session in Study 2.

	Messages
Opening questions	1. ‘Hi Anne from the police here, who am I talking to?’ 2. ‘I heard you have locked yourself in a room?’ 3. ‘And what about the theft? 4. ‘Can you tell me a bit more about that?’
Error manipulation	5. Factual: ‘Ok. So this is the first time you are on campus.’ Judgment ‘Ok. So you stole out of boredom.’ No error: ‘Ok. So you study here at the UT.’
Response manipulation	6. Contradict: ‘I do not have it wrong.’ Apologize: ‘I had it wrong, I apologize.’ Accept/no error: ‘I have noted everything.’
Closing questions	7. ‘Are you alone in the room?’ 8. ‘What do you plan on doing next?’

Table 6. Mean, standard deviations, reliability, and inter-correlations among study variables in Study 2.

Variables	M	SD	α	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12
1. Affective trust	2.38	0.96	.78
2. Cognitive trust	3.11	0.66	.70	.54*
3. Rapport	3.03	0.56	.78	.67*	.60*
4. Hostility	2.74	0.70	.72	−.10	−.23*	−.23*
5 Willingness to provide info	2.47	1.07	.87	.68*	.46*	.48*	−.18*
6 Quantity of info provision (after error)	0.12	0.10		−.03	−.13	−.11	.10	−.05
7 Quality of info provision (after error	1.36	0.85		.12	.17*	.08	−.10	.28*	.20*
8 Quantity of info provision (after response)	0.08	0.07		−.13	−.08	−.11	−.01	−.17*	−.13	−.12
9. Quality of info provision (after response)	0.34	0.69		−.06	.00	−.09	.00	.04	.00	.03	.51*
10. Belongingness	2.85	1.06	.72	.55*	.42*	.52*	−.25*	.51*	−.07	.21*	−.06	−.03
11. Control	3.32	1.34	.85	.27*	.20*	.29*	−.04	−.19	.08	.06	−.05	.04	.30*
12. Self−esteem	3.66	1.10	.69	.11	.10	.20*	−.36*	.00	−.04	−.07	−.03	−.02	.22*	.36*
13. Meaningful existence	4.01	1.31	.89	.48*	.44*	.52*	−.21*	.40*	−.03	.26*	−.02	.01	.48*	.45*	.15*

Note: N = 184.

*p < .05, calculated using 1000 bootstrapped resamples for each coefficient.

Table 7. Means and standard deviations for negotiating effectiveness measures as a function of communication error in Study 2.

Effectiveness measure	Communication error
	Control (N = 34)		Factual (N = 74)		Judgment (N = 76)
	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD
1. Affective trust	2.39	0.97	2.51	1.00	2.25	0.91
2. Cognitive trust	3.13	0.75	3.19	0.67	3.03	0.61
3. Rapport	3.06	0.54	3.09	0.61	2.96	0.51
4. Hostility	2.88	0.74	2.59	0.66	2.81	0.69
5. Willingness to provide info	2.42	1.06	2.46	1.13	2.50	1.03
6. Quantity of info provision (after error)	0.06	0.07	0.11^a,b	0.07	0.17^a,b	0.11
7. Quality of info provision (after error)	0.88	0.64	1.53^a	0.71	1.41^a	0.98

^aDiffers significantly from control, p < .05.

^bDiffers significantly from the other communication error, p < .05.

Table 8. Means and standard deviations for negotiating effectiveness measures as a function of response strategy in Study 2.

Effectiveness measure	Response strategies
	Control (N = 34)		Contradict (N = 43)		Apologize (N = 56)		Accept (N = 51)
	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD
1. Affective trust	2.39	0.97	2.06^b	0.86	2.71^c	0.97	2.27^b	0.95
2. Cognitive trust	3.13	0.75	3.00	0.71	3.16	0.59	3.13	0.65
3. Rapport	3.06	0.54	2.74^a,b	0.50	3.22^c	0.49	3.04^c	0.60
4. Hostility	2.88	0.74	2.82	0.65	2.53	0.60	2.80	0.77
5. Willingness to provide info	2.42	1.06	2.34	0.99	2.62	1.19	2.44	1.04
6. Quantity of info provision (after response)	0.06	0.05	0.10	0.07	0.07	0.08	0.07	0.06
7. Quality of info provision (after response)	0.09	0.38	0.70^a	0.83	0.41^a	0.76	0.14^b,c	0.49

^aDiffers significantly from control, p < .05.

^bDiffers significantly from apologize, p < .05.

^cDiffers significantly from contradict, p < .05.