Assessing Children's Exposures and Risks to Drinking Water Contaminants: A Manganese Case Study

Figures & data

Table 1 Recommended community drinking water intake rates.

Age group	Mean	95th percentile
Birth to < 1month	470 ml/day 137 ml/kg-day	858 ml/day 238 ml/kg-day
1 to < 3 months	552 ml/day 119 ml/kg-day	1053 ml/day 285 ml/kg-day
3 to < 6 months	556 ml/day 80 ml/kg-day	1171 ml/day 173 ml/kg-day
6 to < 12 months	467 ml/day 53 ml/kg-day	1147 ml/day 129 ml/kg-day
1 to < 2 years	308 ml/day 27 ml/kg-day	893 ml/day 75 ml/kg-day
2 to < 3 years	356 ml/day 26 ml/kg-day	912 ml/day 62 ml/kg-day
3 to < 6 years	417 ml/day 24 ml/kg-day	1099 ml/day 65 ml/kg-day
6 to < 11 years	480 ml/day 17 ml/kg-day	1251 ml/day 45 ml/kg-day
11 to < 16 years	652 ml/day 13 ml/kg-day	1744 ml/day 34 ml/kg-day
16 to < 18 years	792 ml/day 12 ml/kg-day	2002 ml/day 32 ml/kg-day
16 to < 21 years	895 ml/day 13 ml/kg-day	2565 ml/day 35 ml/kg-day
(USEPA 2008). Body weights were determined using existing USEPA drinking water intake values (ml/day), presented in columns two and three, were divided by intake rates normalized to body weight (ml/kg-day) to obtain age-specific body weights. Therefore the weights at the 95th percentile may appear inconsistent.

Table 2 IOM recommended daily dietary intakes for Mn (mg/day).

Age			AI		UL
Infants (mo):	0–6		0.003		ND
	7–12		0.6		ND
Children (yr):	1–3		1.2		2
	4–8		1.5		3
	9–13	1.6(females)		1.9(males)	6
	14–18	1.6(females)		1.9(males)	9
Adults (≥19 yr):		1.8(females)		2.3(males)	11
AI, Adequate Intake; UL, Upper Limit; ND, Not determined.
Source: IOM FNB (2001).

Table 3 Summary of children's drinking water exposure epidemiological studies.

		Water Mn levels (mg/l)
Drinking water study	Age (yrs) Mean ± SD	Average	Maximum	Preclinical signs of Mn toxicity	Elevated levels of hair Mn
Bouchard et al. (2007)	11.0 ± 2.5	0.500	0.610	Yes	Yes
Wasserman et al. (2006)	10.0 ± 0.4	0.793	≥ 1.00	Yes	NA
Zhang et al. (1995)	12.0 ± 1.0	0.241	0.346	Yes	NA
He et al. (1994)	12.0 ± 1.0	0.241	0.346	Yes	Yes
Woolf et al. (2002) *	10.0	1.2	NA	Yes	NA

Table 4 NIRS drinking water occurrence for Mn.

	Drinking water concentration (mg Mn/L)
State	Median	95th percentile
Pennsylvania	0.02	0.54
Minnesota	0.09	0.49
Iowa	0.01	0.58

Table 5 Mn concentrations in 5 fluid ounces of diluted powder- based infant formulas*.

Formula	(μg/5 fl oz)
Brand 1: Lipil with Iron	15
Brand 1: AR	15
Brand 1: Gentlease	15
Brand 1: Lactose Free	15
Brand 1: ProSobee (soy formula)	25
Brand 1: Nutramigen	25
Brand 2: with Iron (comfort protiens)	15
Brand 2: with Iron	7
Brand 2: with Iron (easy to digest)	7
Brand 3: Organic	5
Brand 3: Alimentum	8
Brand 3: Advance with Iron	5
Brand 3: Isomil Advance	25
Brand 3: lactose free	5
Brand 4: Isomil Advance with Iron	25
Brand 5	7.5
FDA minimum Mn recommended concentration in formula 5 μg/5 fl oz.

Figure 1 Potential Mn dose from drinking water by age group in Pennsylvania (PA), Iowa (IA), and Minnesota (MN).

Figure 2 Potential Mn hazard from 7 years of intake among formula-fed children in Pennsylvania (PA), Minnesota (MN), and Iowa (IA). The Hazard Quotient (HQ) is calculated to be less than 1, then adverse health effects are not expected as a result of exposure, and if the HQ is greater than 1, then adverse health effects are possible (USEPA 1996b).

Figure 3 Potential Mn hazard from 21 years of intake among formula-fed children in Pennsylvania (PA), Minnesota (MN), and Iowa (IA). The Hazard Quotient (HQ) is calculated to be less than 1, then adverse health effects are not expected as a result of exposure, and if the HQ is greater than 1, then adverse health effects are possible (USEPA 1996b).

Figure 4 Potential Mn Hazard from 6 years of intake among breast-fed children in Pennsylvania (PA), Minnesota (MN), and Iowa (IA). The Hazard Quotient (HQ) is calculated to be less than 1, then adverse health effects are not expected as a result of exposure, and if the HQ is greater than 1, then adverse health effects are possible (USEPA 1996b).

Figure 5 Potential Mn hazard from 20 years intake among breast fed infants in Pennsylvania (PA), Minnesota (MN), and Iowa (IA). The Hazard Quotient (HQ) is calculated to be less than 1, then adverse health effects are not expected as a result of exposure, and if the HQ is greater than 1, then adverse health effects are possible (USEPA 1996b).

Figure 6 Comparison of Mn doses in water and formula in high exposure scenario (95th percentile for both intake and drinking water concentrations) in Iowa).

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