Modeling Human Exposure to Phthalate Esters: A Comparison of Indirect and Biomonitoring Estimation Methods

Figures & data

Table 1 Intake rates used to calculate indirect exposure.

		Adult (20 to 70 y)			Teen (12 to 19 y)			Child (5 to 11 y)			Toddler (0.5 to 4 y)			Neonate (0 to 0.5 y)
Input Parameter	Units	Dist	Mean	Std Dev	Dist	Mean	Std Dev	Dist	Mean	Std Dev	Dist	Mean	Std Dev	Dist	Mean	Std Dev
General receptor characteristics
Body weight	kg	LN	71	14	LN	60	14	LN	27	7.3	LN	15	3.8	LN	7.5	3.2
Inhalation rate	m^3/d	LN	16	3.9	LN	16	4	LN	15	3.2	LN	9.3	2.6	LN	2.1	0.57
Receptor ingestion rates
Tap water	L/d	LN	0.8	0.52	LN	1	0.67	LN	1.1	0.7	LN	0.7	0.46	LN	0.8	0.52
Beverages	L/d	LN	0.96	0.62	LN	0.43	0.28	LN	0.23	0.15	LN	0.12	0.08	—	—	—
Cereals	g/d	LN	27	16	LN	24	15	LN	34	22	LN	42	27	—	—	—
Dairy products (excl. milk)	g/d	LN	53	34	LN	50	33	LN	45	29	LN	38	25	—	—	—
Eggs	g/d	LN	32	21	LN	22	14	LN	21	14	LN	24	16	—	—	—
Fats and oils	g/d	LN	25	16	LN	29	19	LN	21	14	LN	11	7.1	—	—	—
Fish	g/d	LN	14	9	LN	11	7.3	LN	8.4	5.5	LN	3.4	2.2	—	—	—
Fruits	g/d	LN	190	120	LN	160	100	LN	200	130	LN	190	120	—	—	—
Grains	g/d	LN	160	100	LN	210	130	LN	190	120	LN	90	58	—	—	—
Meats	g/d	LN	95	61	LN	93	60	LN	55	36	LN	38	25	—	—	—
Milk	L/d	LN	0.23	0.15	LN	0.523	0.34	LN	0.564	0.37	LN	0.632	0.41	—	—	—
Nuts and beans	g/d	LN	28	18	LN	31	20	LN	24	15	LN	15	9.7	—	—	—
Other foods	g/d	LN	220	144	LN	250	160	LN	210	140	LN	270	180	—	—	—
Poultry	g/d	LN	21	14	LN	20	13	LN	17	11	LN	13	8.6	—	—	—
Processed meats	g/d	LN	22	14	LN	23	15	LN	19	12	LN	11	7	—	—	—
Vegetables	g/d	LN	230	150	LN	240	150	LN	190	120	LN	120	76	—	—	—
Infant formula (powder)	g/d	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	LN	130	85
Breast milk	L/d	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	LN	0.75	0.49
Total food	g/d	LN	2300	1495	LN	2100	1365	LN	1800	1170	LN	1500	975	LN	820	533
Incidental soil	mg/d	LN	40	100	LN	40	100	LN	40	100	LN	40	100	LN	40	100
Incidental dust	mg/d	LN	40	100	LN	40	100	LN	40	100	LN	40	100	LN	40	100
Exposure frequency
Time spent indoors	h/d	U	20 to 24		U	20 to 24		U	20 to 24		U	20 to 24		U	20 to 24
Dist = Distribution type; LN = log normal; U = uniform; References for information provided in Clark et al. (2003b).

Table 2 Concentrations used to calculate indirect exposure.

	DMP				DEP			DBP			DiBP			BBP			DEHP			DiNP
Concentration	Units	Dist	Mean	Std Dev	Dist	Mean	Std Dev	Dist	Mean	Std Dev	Dist	Mean	Std Dev	Dist	Mean	Std Dev	Dist	Mean	Std Dev	Dist	Mean	Std Dev
MEDIUM
Outdoor air	μg/m^3	LN	0.0033	0.0021	LN	0.013	0.0085	LN	0.012	0.008	LN	0.015	0.01	LN	0.002	0.001	LN	0.018	0.01	LN	0.01	0.007
Indoor air	μg/m^3	LN	0.923	0.60	LN	0.91	0.59	LN	1.06	0.69	LN	0.5	0.3	LN	0.042	0.027	LN	0.274	0.18	LN	0.011	0.007
Drinking water	μg/L	LN	0.027	0.018	LN	0.12	0.08	LN	0.19	0.12	LN	0.26	0.17	LN	0.06	0.04	LN	1.8	1.2	C	0	—
Ingested soil	μg/g	LN	0.0002	0.00013	LN	0.0023	0.0015	LN	0.011	0.007	LN	0.017	0.011	LN	0.0036	0.0023	LN	0.025	0.016	LN	0.011	0.007
Ingested dust	μg/g	LN	2.0	1.3	LN	25	16	LN	132	86	LN	86	56	LN	236	153	LN	901	586	LN	420	273
Food
Beverages excl.	μg/L	C	0	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	LN	6	3.9	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
water
Cereals	μg/g	C	0	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	C	0	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Dairy products	μg/g	C	0	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	C	0	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Eggs	μg/g	C	0	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	LN	0.1	0.07	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Fats and oils	μg/g	C	0	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	C	0	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Fish	μg/g	LN	0.0012	0.0008	—	—	—	—	—	—	LN	0.011	0.008	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Fruit products	μg/g	C	0	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	LN	0.03	0.02	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Grains	μg/g	C	0	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	LN	0.13	0.08	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Meats	μg/g	C	0	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	LN	0.05	0.03	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Milk	μg/L	LN	0.7	0.5	—	—	—	—	—	—	LN	17	11	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Nuts and beans	μg/g	C	0	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	C	0	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Other foods	μg/g	C	0	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	C	0	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Poultry	μg/g	C	0	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	LN	0.06	0.04	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Processed meats	μg/g	C	0	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	LN	0.03	0.02	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Vegetable products	μg/g	C	0	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	LN	0.005	0.003	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Infant formula -	μg/g	C	0	—	C	0	—	LN	0.048	0.031	LN	0.06	0.04	LN	0.003	0.002	LN	0.15	0.10	C	0	—
powder
Breast milk	μg/g	C	0	—	LN	0.00031	0.0002	LN	0.0015	0.001	C	0	—	LN	0.0008	0.0005	LN	0.148	0.096	C	0	—
Composite diet	μg/g	—	—	—	T	0.0001,	0.026	LN	0.033	0.021	—	—	—	LN	0.014	0.009	LN	0.39	0.25	LN	0.018	0.012
samples						0.0002,
Dist. = Distribution type; LN = log normal; C = constant, T = triangular.
Measured concentrations obtained from numerous references, contained in ACC database (Clark 2008).

Table 3 DMP exposure estimates.

	DMP Intake (μgkg^−1d^−1)
Study	Adult	Teen	Child	Toddler	Infant
Present evaluation
Update to Clark et al. (2003b), using	Age 20 to 70 y:	Age 12 to 19 y:	Age 5 to 11 y:	Age 0.5 to 4y:	Age 0 to 0.5 y:
concentrations in Table 2. Median intake, based on ingestion of food, drinking water, dust/soil, and inhalation of air using data compiled from various countries and various years. Data format: median (95th percentile)	0.16 (0.48)	0.19 (0.60)	0.40 (1.2)	0.47 (1.4)	0.22 (0.8)
Clark et al. ( 2003b )
Median intake, based on ingestion of	Age 20 to 70 y:	Age 12 to 19 y:	Age 5 to 11 y:	Age 0.5 to 4y:	Age 0 to 0.5 y:
food, drinking water, dust/soil, and inhalation of air using data compiled from various countries and various years	0.7	0.7	1.4	1.6	0.05
Wormuth et al. ( 2006 ) + suppl data
Europe: based on oral, inhalation, and	Age 18 to 80 y:	Age 11 to 18 y:	Age 4 to 10 y:	Age 1 to 3 y:	Age 0 to 1 y:
dermal exposure pathways, including	F: 0.06; 0.94; 7.31	F: 0.07; 0.59; 3.50	0.05; 0.46; 5.92	0.08; 0.76; 9.78	0.2; 1.27; 16.97
consumer products; data format = low, intermediate, high estimate; F = female; M = male	M: 0.08; 0.85; 5.99	M: 0.05; 0.53; 3.55
Fromme et al. ( 2007b )
Germany (2005): intake estimated from composite dietary samples collected over 7 days; N = 50 (27 female + 23 male)	Age 14 to 60 y: 0.11 (median); 0.18 (95th percentile); 0.05–0.26 (range)		—	—	—
Itoh et al. ( 2007 )
Japan:
Based on ingestion of food and inhalation of indoor air; data compiled from various sources	0.38 (mean)	—	—	—	—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MMP (2004); N = 35	1.4 to 2.0 (range of means); 0.60 to 0.87 (range of geo means)	—	—	—	—
CDC (2005) ^a
USA (NHANES 2001–2002): Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MMP; data format: geo mean (95th percentile)
N = 2772	Age 6+ y: Total: 0.034 (0.25); Male: 0.034 (0.23); Female: 0.034 (0.28)			—	—
N = 1638	Age 20+ y: 0.031 (0.24)	—	—	—	—
N = 742	—	Age 12 to 19 y:	—	—	—
		0.021 (0.12)
N = 392	—	—	Age 6 to 11 y:	—	—
			0.028 (0.21)
Huang et al. ( 2006 )
Taiwan (undated): Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MMP; pregnant women; N = 28	0.3 (median)	—	—	—	—
^aDaily intake calculated from reported urinary metabolite data, as described in text.

Table 4 DEP exposure estimates.

	DEP Intake (μgkg^−1d^−1)
Study	Adult	Teen	Child	Toddler	Infant
Present evaluation
Update to Clark et al. (2003b), using	Age 20 to 70 y:	Age 12 to 19 y:	Age 5 to 11 y:	Age 0.5 to 4 y:	Age 0 to 0.5 y:
concentrations in Table 2. Median intake, based on ingestion of food, drinking water, dust/soil, and inhalation of air using data compiled from various countries and various years. Data format: median (95th percentile)	0.46 (1.0)	0.46 (1.3)	0.93 (2.8)	1.2 (3.8)	0.34 (1.2)
Clark et al. ( 2003b )
Based on ingestion of food, drinking water,	Age 20 to 70 y:	Age 12 to 19 y:	Age 5 to 11 y:	Age 0.5 to 4 y:	Age 0 to 0.5 y:
dust/soil, and inhalation of air using data compiled from various countries and various years	2.5 (median)	3.0 (median)	5.7 (median)	10.6 (median)	0.2 (median)
Wormuth et al. ( 2006 ) + suppl data
Europe: based on oral, inhalation, and dermal	Age 18 to 80 y:	Age 11 to 18 y:	Age 4 to 10 y:	Age 1 to 3 y:	Age 0 to 1 y:
exposure pathways, including consumer	F: 0.01, 4.06, 84.11	F: 0.01; 1.76; 20.94	0.27; 1.23; 7.12	0.56; 2.46; 13.89	1.25; 4.37; 23.86
products; data format = low, intermediate, high estimate; F = female; M = male	M: 0.02; 4.47; 49.27	M: 0.03; 1.53; 12.12
Fromme et al. ( 2007b )
Germany (2005): intake estimated from composite dietary samples collected over 7 days; N = 50 (27 female + 23 male)	Age 14 to 60 y: 0.13 (median); 0.34 (95th percentile); 0.06–0.49 (range)		—	—	—
Fromme et al. ( 2007b )
Germany (2002: Koch et al. 2003a): N = 85 Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MEP; data format: median (95th percentile)	Age 7 to 63 y: Female: 4.6 (38.5); Male: 2.0 (42.4)			—	—
Tsumura et al. ( 2001a )
Japan (1999): Based on total diet study of hospital food; calculated using body weight of 50 kg.	0.007 (mean)	—	—	—	—
Itoh et al. ( 2007 )
Japan:
Based on ingestion of food and inhalation of	0.051 to 0.065	—	—	—	—
indoor air; data compiled from various sources	(range of means)
Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MEP	0.77 to 1.2	—	—	—	—
(2004); N = 35	(range of means)
Calafat and McKee ( 2006 )
USA (NHANES 2001–2002; CDC, 2005): Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MEP; data format: geo mean (95th percentile)
N = 2772	Age 6 to > 20 y: 5.5 (61.7); Male: 4.9 (69.0); Female: 6.2 (47.4)			—	—
N = 742	—	Age 12 to 19 y:	—	—	—
		5.0 (44.1)
N = 392	—	—	Age 6 to 11 y:	—	—
			1.8 (15.3)
Marsee et al. ( 2006 )
USA (2000–2003): pregnant women (N = 214):	6.64 (median); 112.3	—	—	—	—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MEP	(95th percentile)
CDC (2003) ^a
USA (NHANES 1999–2000): Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MEP; data format: geo mean (95th percentile)
N = 2536	Age 6+ y: Total: 5.4 (64.7); Male: 5.4 (74.1); Female: 5.6 (57.4)			—	—
N = 1456	Age 20+ y:	—	—	—	—
	5.9 (72.0)
N = 752	—	Age 12 to 19 y:	—	—	—
		2.6 (28.3)
N = 328	—	—	Age 6 to 11 y:	—	—
			1.7 (11.4)
Brock et al. ( 2002 ) ^a				Age 11.8 to
				16.5 months:
USA (2000): Intake calculated from urinary	—	—	—	6.3 (geo mean);	—
metabolite data for MEP; 19 children; 30 samples				37 (95th percentile)
David ( 2000 )
USA (1988–1994; NHANES III). Intake calculated	Age 20 to 60 y:	—	—	—	—
from urinary metabolite data for MEP (Blount	12.34 (geo mean);
et al. 2000); N = 289	93.33 (95th percentile)
Kohn et al. ( 2000 )
USA (1988–1994; NHANES III). Intake calculated	Age 20 to 60 y:	—	—	—	—
from urinary metabolite data for MEP (Blount	12 (median);
et al. 2000); N = 289	110 (95th percentile)
Huang et al. ( 2006 )
Taiwan (undated): Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MEP; pregnant women; N = 28	3.01 (median)	—	—	—	—
Chen et al. ( 2008 )
Taiwan (undated): Calculated from urinary	Age 21 to 67 y:	—	—	—	—
metabolite data for MEP; N = 60 (41 female,	nd (median);
18 male)	nd to 27.9 (range)
nd = Not detected.

Table 5 DBP exposure estimates.

	DBP Intake (μgkg^−1d^−1)
Study	Adult	Teen	Child	Toddler	Infant
Present evaluation
Update to Clark et al. (2003b), using concentrations in Table 2. Median intake, based on ingestion of food, drinking water, dust/soil, and inhalation of air using data compiled from various countries and various years. Data format: median (95th percentile)	Age 20 to 70 y: 1.2 (3.0)	Age 12 to 19 y: 1.2 (4.0)	Age 5 to 11 y: 2.4 (8.1)	Age 0.5 to 4 y: 3.4 (12)	Age 0 to 0.5 y: 1.5 (5.7) formula-fed; 0.78 (4.0) breast-fed
Clark et al. ( 2003b )
Based on ingestion of food, drinking water, dust/soil, and inhalation of air using data compiled from various countries and various years	Age 20 to 70 y: 5.6 (median)	Age 12 to 19 y: 6.4 (median)	Age 5 to 11 y: 11 (median)	Age 0.5 to 4 y: 14 (median)	Age 0 to 0.5 y: 1.5 (formula-fed); 2.9 (breast-fed) (median)
Wormuth et al. ( 2006 ) + suppl data
Europe: based on oral, inhalation, and dermal exposure pathways, including consumer products; data format = low, intermediate, high estimate; F = female; M = male	Age 18 to 80 y: F: 1.42; 5.33; 54.20 M: 1.63; 4.31; 25.82	Age 11 to 18 y: F: 0.19; 1.74; 17.35 M: 0.17; 1.37; 17.02	Age 4 to 10 y: 0.83; 2.41; 19.60	Age 1 to 3 y: 0.35; 2.62; 26.74	Age 0 to 1 y: 1.02; 7.37; 45.63
Franco et al. ( 2007 )
Based on ingestion of food, drinking water, dust/soil, and inhalation of air using data compiled from various countries and various years	2.7 (median)	—	—	—	—
Based on ingestion of leaf and root crops, fish, beef, dairy, drinking water, and inhalation of outdoor air using the EUSES model and data from the Netherlands	0.21 (median)	—	—	—	—
Wilson et al. ( 2003 )
USA (1997): Based on ingestion of food, dust, and soil and inhalation of indoor and outdoor air	—	—	—	Age 2 to 5 y: 1.4 (mean); 0.745 to 2.85 (range)	—
Tsumura et al. ( 2003 )
Japan (2001): Based on total diet study of hospital food; calculated using body weight of 50 kg.	0.26	—	—	—	—
Tsumura et al. ( 2001a )
Japan (1999): Based on total diet study of hospital food; calculated using body weight of 50 kg	0.29	—	—	—	—
Itoh et al. ( 2007 )
Japan:
Based on ingestion of food and inhalation of   indoor air; data compiled from various sources	0.44 to 0.75 (range of means)	—	—	—	—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MBP   (2004); N = 35	1.7 (mean)	—	—	—	—
Fromme et al. (2007a and b)
Germany (2005): N = 50 (27 female + 23 male)	Age 14 to 60 y:
Calculated from composite dietary samples collected	0.26 (median); 1.35 (95th percentile);		—	—	—
over 7 days	0.12–1.63 (range)
Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MBP;	Total: 1.7 (4.2)		—	—	—
data format: median (95th percentile)	Female: 1.7 (4.4); Male: 1.8 (3.9)		—	—	—
Fromme et al. ( 2007b )
Germany (2002: Koch et al 2003a): N = 85	Age 7 to 63 y:
Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MBP; data format: median (95th percentile)	Female: 6.0 (17.5); Male: 4.6 (15.9)			—	—
Wittassek et al. ( 2007b )
Germany: Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MBP; male and female adults; data format: median; 95th percentile; (range)	Age 20 to 29 y:
1988 (N = 60)	7.0; 24.2; (0.72–27.8)	—	—	—	—
1989 (N = 60)	7.5; 21.7; (1.5–70.1)	—	—	—	—
1991 (N = 60)	6.4; 14.3; (2.1–28.7)	—	—	—	—
1993 (N = 60)	6.6; 44.4; (1.5–56.3)	—	—	—	—
1996 (N = 145)	3.7; 15.5; (1.1–90.2)	—	—	—	—
1998 (N = 68)	3.1; 11.9; (0.22–20.3)	—	—	—	—
1999 (N = 60)	2.8; 16.2; (0.83–32.8)	—	—	—	—
2001 (N = 60)	2.5; 19.4; (0.81–116)	—	—	—	—
2003 (N = 59)	1.9; 5.3; (0.49–71.8)	—	—	—	—
Total male (N = 325)	3.7; 16.2; (NA)	—	—	—	—
Total female (N = 307)	4.6; 20.3; (NA)	—	—	—	—
Overall total (N = 632)	4.1; 19.1; (0.22–116)	—	—	—	—
Wittassek and Angerer ( 2008 )
Germany: Calculated from urinary metabolite	Age 6 to 80 y:
data for MBP; N = 102	2.1 (median); 230 (maximum)			—	—
Children: N = 239		Age 2 to 14 y:
Creatinine-based model	—	4.1 (median); 76.4 (maximum)			—
Volume-based model	—	7.6 (median); 110 (maximum)			—
CDC (2005) ^a
USA (NHANES 2001–2002): Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MBP; data format: geo mean (95th percentile)
N = 2,772	Age 6+ y: Total: 0.65 (3.0); Male: 0.60 (2.5); Female: 0.71 (3.0)			—	—
N = 1638	Age 20+ y: 0.58 (2.6)	—	—	—	—
N = 742	—	Age 12 to 19 y: 0.39 (1.8)	—	—	—
N = 392	—	—	Age 6 to 11 y: 0.71 (2.9)	—	—
Marsee et al. ( 2006 )
USA (2000–2003): pregnant women (N = 214): Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MBP	0.84 (median); 2.33 (95th percentile)	—	—	—	—
CDC (2003) ^a
USA (NHANES 1999–2000): Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MBP + MiBP; data format: geo mean (95th percentile)
N = 2,541	Age 6+ y: Total: 0.81 (3.5); Male: 0.72 (2.7); Female: 0.93 (4.3)			—	—
N = 1,461	Age 20+ y: 0.74 (3.3)	—	—	—	—
N = 752	—	Age 12 to 19 y: 0.49 (1.8)	—	—	—
N = 328	—	—	Age 6 to 11 y: 0.84 (3.2)	—	—
Brock et al. ( 2002 ) ^a				Age 11.8 to 16.5 months:
USA (2000): Intake calculated from urinary metabolite data for MBP; 19 children; 30 samples	—	—	—	2.45 (geo mean); 16.6 (95th percentile)	—
David ( 2000 )
USA (1988–1994; NHANES III). Intake calculated	Age 20 to 60 y:
from urinary metabolite data for MBP (Blount et al. 2000); N = 289	1.56 (geo mean); 6.87 (95th percentile)	—	—	—	—
Kohn et al. ( 2000 )
USA (1988–1994; NHANES III). Intake calculated	Age 20 to 60 y:
from urinary metabolite data for MBP (Blount et al. 2000); N = 289	1.5 (median); 7.2 (95th percentile)	—	—	—	—
Huang et al. ( 2006 )
Taiwan (undated): Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MBP; pregnant women; N = 28	9.28 (median)	—	—	—	—
Chen et al. ( 2008 )
Taiwan (undated): Calculated from urinary metabolite	Age 21 to 67 y:
data for MBP; N = 60 (41 female, 18 male)	2.2 (median); nd to 23.5 (range)	—	—	—	—
^aDaily intake calculated from reported urinary metabolite data, as described in text.
NA = Not available
nd = Not detected

Table 6 DiBP exposure estimates.

	DiBP Intake (μgkg^−1d^−1)
Study	Adult	Teen	Child	Toddler	Infant
Present evaluation
Using method described in Clark et al. (2003b) and concentrations in Table 2. Median intake, based on ingestion of food, drinking water, dust/soil, and inhalation of air using data compiled from various countries and various years. Data format: median (95th percentile)	Age 20 to 70 y: 0.76 (1.6)	Age 12 to 19 y: 0.98 (2.2)	Age 5 to 11 y: 2.1 (4.8)	Age 0.5 to 4 y: 2.6 (6.2)	Age 0 to 0.5 y: 1.3 (5.5)
Wormuth et al. ( 2006 ) + suppl data
Europe: based on oral, inhalation, and dermal exposure pathways, including consumer products; data format = low, intermediate, high estimate; F = female; M = male	Age 18 to 80 y: F: 0.03; 0.45; 1.61 M: 0.03; 0.50; 1.82	Age 11 to 18 y: F: 0.05; 0.30; 0.98 M: 0.06; 0.40; 1.27	Age 4 to 10 y: 0.04; 0.39; 1.55	Age 1 to 3 y: 0.07; 0.69; 2.44	Age 0 to 1 y: 0.16; 1.53; 4.73
Fromme et al. (2007a and b)
Germany (2005): N = 50 (27 female + 23 male)	Age 14 to 60 y:
Calculated from composite dietary samples collected over 7 days	0.57 (median); 2.14 (95th percentile); 0.23–3.47 (range)		—	—	—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MiBP;	Total: 1.7 (5.2)		—	—	—
data format: median (95th percentile)	Female: 1.6 (4.7); Male: 1.8 (5.3)		—	—	—
Wittassek et al. ( 2007b )
Germany: Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MiBP; male and female adults; data format: median; 95th percentile; (range)	Age 20 to 29 y:
1988 (N = 60)	1.1; 3.6; (0.27–6.2)	—	—	—	—
1989 (N = 60)	1.0; 4.2; (0.30–12.9)	—	—	—	—
1991 (N = 60)	1.2; 8.7; (0.36–20.2)	—	—	—	—
1993 (N = 60)	1.2; 2.8; (0.39–4.8)	—	—	—	—
1996 (N = 145)	1.6; 8.4; (0.45–29.0)	—	—	—	—
1998 (N = 68)	1.4; 5.8; (0.10–12.2)	—	—	—	—
1999 (N = 60)	1.5; 4.4; (0.41–15.1)	—	—	—	—
2001 (N = 60)	1.6; 4.6; (0.29–12.6)	—	—	—	—
2003 (N = 59)	1.4; 3.9; (0.46–5.2)	—	—	—	—
Total male (N = 325)	1.3; 4.8; (NA)	—	—	—	—
Total female (N = 307)	1.4; 6.6; (NA)	—	—	—	—
Overall total (N = 632)	1.4; 5.7; (0.10–29.0)	—	—	—	—
Wittassek and Angerer ( 2008 )
Germany: Calculated from urinary metabolite data	Age 6 to 80 y:			—	—
for MiBP; N = 102	1.5 (median); 27.3 (maximum)
CDC (2005) ^a
USA (NHANES 2001–2002): Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MiBP; data format: geo mean (95th percentile)
N = 2,772	Age 6+ y: Total: 0.09 (0.44); Male: 0.09 (0.46); Female: 0.09 (0.44)			—	—
N = 1,638	Age 20+ y: 0.08 (0.38)	—	—	—	—
N = 742	—	Age 12 to 19 y: 0.05 (0.26)	—	—	—
N = 392	—	—	Age 6 to 11 y: 0.10 (0.49)	—	—
Marsee et al. ( 2006 )
USA (2000–2003): pregnant women (N = 214): Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MiBP	0.12 (median); 0.41 (95th percentile)	—	—	—	—
^aDaily intake calculated from reported urinary metabolite data, as described in text.
NA = Not available

Table 7 BBP exposure estimates.

	BBP Intake (μgkg^−1d^−1)
Study	Adult	Teen	Child	Toddler	Infant
Present evaluation
Update to Clark et al. (2003b), using concentrations in	Age 20 to 70 y:	Age 12 to 19 y:	Age 5 to 11 y:	Age 0.5 to 4 y:	Age 0 to 0.5 y:
Table 2. Median intake, based on ingestion of food,	0.50 (1.4)	0.49 (1.9)	0.97 (4.0)	1.5 (6.1)	0.51 (6.1)
drinking water, dust/soil, and inhalation of air using					formula-fed; 0.53
data compiled from various countries and various					(6.1) breast-fed
years. Data format: median (95th percentile)
Clark et al. ( 2003b )
Based on ingestion of food, drinking water, dust/soil,	Age 20 to 70 y:	Age 12 to 19 y:	Age 5 to 11 y:	Age 0.5 to 4 y:	Age 0 to 0.5 y:
and inhalation of air using data compiled from various countries and various years	3.7 (median)	5.7 (median)	7.9 (median)	9.3 (median)	1.5 (median)
Wormuth et al. ( 2006 ) + suppl data
Europe: based on oral, inhalation, and dermal exposure	Age 18 to 80 y:	Age 11 to 18 y:	Age 4 to 10 y:	Age 1 to 3 y:	Age 0 to 1 y:
pathways, including consumer products; data	F: 0.02; 0.24; 2.62	F: 0.02; 0.11; 2.24	0.01; 0.13; 1.68	0.02; 0.44; 5.89	0.06; 1.16; 11.70
format = low, intermediate, high estimate; F = female; M = male	M: 0.02; 0.26; 2.97	M: 0.02; 0.13; 2.76
Wilson et al. ( 2003 )
USA (1997): Based on ingestion of food (composite	—	—	—	Age 2 to 5 y:	—
samples), dust, and soil and inhalation of indoor				1.9 (mean); 0.744 to
and outdoor air				2.88 (range)
Tsumura et al. ( 2003 )
Japan (2001): Based on total diet study of hospital food; calculated using body weight of 50 kg.	0.068	—	—	—	—
Tsumura et al. ( 2001a )
Japan (1999): Based on total diet study of hospital food; calculated using body weight of 50 kg	0.094	—	—	—	—
Itoh et al. ( 2007 )
Japan:
Based on ingestion of food and inhalation of	0.062 to 0.083	—	—	—	—
indoor air; data compiled from various sources	(range of means)
Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MBzP   (2004); N = 35	0.093 (mean)	—	—	—	—
Fromme et al. (2007a and b)
Germany (2005): N = 50 (27 female + 23 male)	Age 14 to 60 y:
Calculated from composite dietary samples collected over 7 days	0.23 (median); 0.38 (95th percentile); 0.11–0.50 (range)		—	—	—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MBzP;	Total: 0.2 (1.2)		—	—	—
data format: median (95th percentile)	Female: 0.2 (1.5); Male: 0.2 (1.0)		—	—	—
Fromme et al. ( 2007b )
Germany (2002: Koch et al 2003a): N = 85	Age 7 to 63 y:
Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MBzP; data format: median (95th percentile)	Female: 0.6 (2.5); Male: 0.5 (2.4)			—	—
Wittassek and Angerer ( 2008 )
Germany: Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MBzP; N = 102	Age 6 to 80 y: 0.3 (median); 2.2 (maximum)
				—	—
Children: N = 239		Age 2 to 14 y:
Creatinine-based model	—	0.42 (median); 13.9 (maximum)			—
Volume-based model	—	0.77 (median); 31.3 (maximum)			—
Wittassek et al. ( 2007b )
Germany: Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MBzP; male and female adults; data format: median; 95th percentile; (range)	Age 20 to 29 y:
1988 (N = 60)	0.25; 0.77; (0.02–6.6)	—	—	—	—
1989 (N = 60)	0.30; 2.2; (0.07–2.8)	—	—	—	—
1991 (N = 60)	0.43; 1.6; (0.11–2.8)	—	—	—	—
1993 (N = 60)	0.27; 1.9; (0.07–2.2)	—	—	—	—
1996 (N = 145)	0.29; 5.5; (0.04–27.3)	—	—	—	—
1998 (N = 68)	0.22; 1.4; (0.01–4.0)	—	—	—	—
1999 (N – 60)	0.21; 3.7; (0.03–10.9)	—	—	—	—
2001 (N = 60)	0.22; 0.75; (0.02–0.99)	—	—	—	—
2003 (N = 59)	0.22; 0.91; (0.05–1.74)	—	—	—	—
Total male (N = 325)	0.25; 1.9; (NA)	—	—	—	—
Total female (N = 307)	0.28; 1.5; (NA)	—	—	—	—
Overall total (N = 632)	0.26; 1.6; (0.01–27.3)	—	—	—	—
CDC (2005) ^a
USA (NHANES 2001–2002): Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MBzP; data format: geo mean (95th percentile)
N = 2,772	Age 6+ y: Total: 0.47 (3.0); Male: 0.49 (3.1); Female: 0.47 (2.9)			—	—
N = 1,638	Age 20+ y: 0.40 (2.2)	—	—	—	—
N = 742	—	Age 12 to 19 y:	—	—	—
		0.33 (1.8)
N = 392	—	—	Age 6 to 11 y:	—	—
			0.70 (3.6)
Marsee et al. ( 2006 )
USA (2000–2003): pregnant women (N = 214):	0.50 (median); 2.47	—	—	—	—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MBzP	(95th percentile)
Brock et al. ( 2002 ) ^a				Age 11.8 to
				16.5 months:
USA (2000): Intake calculated from urinary metabolite	—	—	—	1.5 (geo mean);	—
data for MBzP; 19 children; 30 samples				6.4 (95th percentile)
CDC (2003) ^a
USA (NHANES 1999–2000): Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MBzP; data format: geo mean (95th percentile)
N = 2,541	Age 6+ y: Total: 0.47 (2.6); Male: 0.49 (2.8); Female: 0.46 (2.4)			—	—
N = 1,461	Age 20+ y: 0.39 (1.9)	—	—	—	—
N = 752	—	Age 12 to 19 y:	—	—	—
		0.32 (1.3)
N = 328	—	—	Age 6 to 11 y:	—	—
			0.73 (2.6)
David ( 2000 )
USA (1988–1994; NHANES III). Intake calculated from	Age 20 to 60 y:	—	—	—	—
urinary metabolite data for MBzP (Blount, et al.	0.73 (geo mean); 3.34
2000); N = 289	(95th percentile)
Kohn et al. ( 2000 )
USA (1988–1994; NHANES III). Intake calculated from	Age 20 to 60 y:	—	—	—	—
urinary metabolite data for MBzP (Blount, et al.	0.88 (median); 4.0
2000); N = 289	(95th percentile)
Huang et al. ( 2006 )
Taiwan (undated): Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MBzP; pregnant women; N = 28	<0.1 (median)	—	—	—	—
Chen et al. ( 2008 )
Taiwan (undated): Calculated from urinary metabolite	Age 21 to 67 y:	—	—	—	—
data for MBzP; N = 60 (41 female, 18 male)	0.2 (median); nd
	to 1.6 (range)
^aDaily intake calculated from reported urinary metabolite data, as described in text.
NA = Not available
nd = Not detected

Table 8 DEHP exposure estimates.

	DEHP Intake (μgkg^−1d^−1)
Study	Adult	Teen	Child	Toddler	Infant
Present evaluation
Update to Clark et al. (2003b), using concentrations	Age 20 to 70 y:	Age 12 to 19 y:	Age 5 to 11 y:	Age 0.5 to 4 y:	Age 0 to 0.5 y:
in Table 2. Median intake, based on ingestion of	11 (31)	11 (42)	20 (81)	30 (124)	5.0 (27) formula—
food, drinking water, dust/soil, and inhalation of					fed; 16 (66)
air using data compiled from various countries and various years. Data format: median (95th percentile)					breast—fed
Clark et al. ( 2003b )
Based on ingestion of food, drinking water, dust/soil,	Age 20 to 70 y:	Age 12 to 19 y:	Age 5 to 11 y:	Age 0.5 to 4 y:	Age 0 to 0.5 y:
and inhalation of air using data compiled from	8.2 (median)	10 (median)	19 (median)	26 (median)	5.0 (formula—fed);
various countries and various years					7.3 (breast—fed)
					(median)
Wormuth et al. ( 2006 ) + suppl data
Europe: based on oral, inhalation, and dermal	Age 18 to 80 y:	Age 11 to 18 y:	Age 4 to 10 y:	Age 1 to 3 y:	Age 0 to 1 y
exposure pathways, including consumer products;	F: 0.23; 2.06; 11.39	F: 0.10; 1.25; 10.40	0.17; 2.00; 14.51	0.24; 4.91; 47.23	0.54; 12.33; 106.67
data format = low, intermediate, high estimate; F = female; M = male	M: 0.26; 2.25; 12.93	M: 0.14; 1.68; 14.25
Franco et al. ( 2007 )
Based on ingestion of food, drinking water, dust/soil, and inhalation of air using data compiled from various countries and various years	5.6 (median)	—	—	—	—
Based on ingestion of leaf and root crops, fish, beef, dairy, drinking water, and inhalation of outdoor air using the EUSES model and data from the Netherlands	0.68 (median)	—	—	—	—
Jensen and Knudsen ( 2006 )
Denmark: estimated intake due to exposure to	—	—	—	10–20 (typical);	—
consumer products and dust indoors				50–250 (worst case)
Tsumura et al. ( 2003 )
Japan (2001): Based on total diet study of hospital food; calculated using body weight of 50 kg.	3.2	—	—	—	—
Tsumura et al. ( 2001a )
Japan (1999): Based on total diet study of hospital food; calculated using body weight of 50 kg	10.4	—	—	—	—
Itoh et al. ( 2007 )
Japan:
Based on ingestion of food and inhalation of indoor	2.1 to 2.8	—	—	—	—
air; data compiled from various sources	(range of means)
Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MEHP (2004); N = 35	2.7 (mean)	—	—	—	—
Fujimaki et al. ( 2006 )
Japan (2003): pregnant women; N = 40	median (range)
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEHP	10.4 (3.45–41.6)	—	—	—	—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEOHP	4.55 (0.66–17.9)	—	—	—	—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEHHP	3.51 (1.47–8.57)	—	—	—	—
Fromme et al. (2007a and b)
Germany (2005): N = 50 (27 female + 23 male)	Age 14 to 60 y:
Calculated from composite dietary samples collected over 7 days	2.43 (median); 3.95 (95th percentile); 1.0–4.80 (range)		—	—	—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEHP	Total: 2.2 (median); 7.2 (95th percentile)		—	—	—
	Female: 1.9 (7.1); Male: 2.4 (7.6)		—	—	—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEOHP	Total: 2.3 (median); 7.2 (95th percentile)		—	—	—
	Female: 2.3 (8.2); Male: 2.5 (6.5)		—	—	—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEHHP	Total: 2.0 (median); 6.5 (95th percentile)		—	—	—
	Female: 1.7 (7.0); Male: 2.3 (6.0)		—	—	—
Fromme et al. ( 2007b )
Germany (2002: Koch et al. 2003a): Age 7 to 63 y; N = 85	median (95th percentile):
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEHP	Female: 4.0 (14.8); Male: 4.5 (20.5)			—	—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEOHP	Female: 4.8 (16.2); Male: 6.3 (23.3)			—	—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEHHP	Female: 3.7 (14.2); Male: 5.9 (23.6)			—	—
Wittassek et al. ( 2007b )
Germany: Calculated from sum of urinary metabolite	median; 95th
data for MEHHP + MEOHP + MECPP + MCMHP + MEHP; male and female adults 20 to 29 y	percentile; (range)
1988 (N = 60)	3.9; 9.9; (0.78–39.8)	—	—	—	—
1989 (N = 60)	4.2; 10.0; (0.84–33.6)	—	—	—	—
1991 (N = 60)	4.0; 18.8; (1.2–23.6)	—	—	—	—
1993 (N = 60)	4.2; 12.9; (1.4–14.1)	—	—	—	—
1996 (N = 145)	3.7; 13.4; (0.76–30.4)	—	—	—	—
1998 (N = 68)	3.1; 8.1; (0.19–10.9)	—	—	—	—
1999 (N – 60)	2.7; 9.6; (1.0–13.9)	—	—	—	—
2001 (N = 60)	3.1; 7.4; (1.1–20.1)	—	—	—	—
2003 (N = 59)	2.4; 5.7; (0.82–7.1)	—	—	—	—
Total male (N = 325)	3.4; 10.2; (NA)	—	—	—	—
Total female (N = 307)	3.5; 10.5; (NA)	—	—	—	—
Overall total (N = 632)	3.5; 10.1; (0.19–39.8)	—	—	—	—
Wittassek and Angerer ( 2008 )
Germany: Calculated from urinary metabolite data for	Age 6 to 80 y:			—	—
MEHHP + MEOHP + MECPP + MCMHP + MEHP; N = 102	2.7 (median); 42.2 (maximum)			—	—
Wittassek et al. ( 2007a )
Germany: Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MEHHP + MEOHP + MECPP + MCMHP + MEHP; Children: N = 239 (paper contains additional breakdown of data by age and gender)		Age 2 to 14 y:
Creatinine-based model	—	4.3 (median); 15.2 (95th percentile); 0.6–140 (range)			—
Volume-based model	—	7.8 (median); 25.2 (95th percentile); 0.4–409 (range)			—
Calafat and McKee ( 2006 )
USA (NHANES 2001–2002: CDC, 2005); data format: geo mean (95th percentile)	Age 6 to > 20 y: (N = 2,772)
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEHP	0.9 (7.1)			—	—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEHHP	2.1 (16.8)			—	—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEOHP	2.2 (15.6)			—	—
		Age 12 to 19 y:	Age 6 to 11 y:
		(N = 742)	(N = 392)
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEHP	—	0.8 (5.5)	0.6 (3.7)	—	—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEHHP	—	2.2 (11.6)	2.4 (13.2)	—	—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEOHP	—	2.4 (12.6)	2.6 (12.8)	—	—
Germany (2001–2002: Becker et al., 2004); data format: geo mean (95th percentile)		Age 3 to 14 y: (N = 254)
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEHP	—	0.7 (2.8)			—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEHHP	—	2.6 (10.7)			—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEOHP	—	3.1 (11.7)			—
Marsee et al. ( 2006 )
USA (2000–2003): pregnant women (N = 214)	median
	(95th percentile):
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEHP	2.37; (16.8)	—	—	—	—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEHHP	1.33; (9.11)	—	—	—	—
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MEOHP	2.00; (12.8)
Brock et al. ( 2002 ) ^a				Age 11.8 to
				16.5 months:
USA (2000): Intake calculated from urinary metabolite	—	—	—	1.8 (geo mean); 7.0	—
data for MEHP; 19 children; 30 samples				(95th percentile)
CDC (2003) ^a
USA (NHANES 1999–2000): Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MEHP; data format: geo mean (95th percentile)
N = 2,541	Age 6+ y: Total: 0.73 (4.3); Male: 0.78 (5.8): Female: 0.71 (3.4)			—	—
N = 1,461	Age 20+ y:	—	—	—	—
	0.71 (4.1)
N = 752	—	Age 12 to 19 y:	—	—	—
		0.33 (1.6)
N = 328	—	—	Age 6 to 11 y:	—	—
			0.67 (5.4)
David ( 2000 )
USA (1988–1994; NHANES III). Intake calculated from	Age 20 to 60 y:	—	—	—	—
urinary metabolite data for MEHP (Blount, et al.	0.60 (geo mean); 3.05
2000); N = 289	(95th percentile)
Kohn et al. ( 2000 )
USA (1988–1994; NHANES III). Intake calculated from	Age 20 to 60 y:	—	—	—	—
urinary metabolite data for MEHP (Blount, et al.	0.71 (median); 3.6
2000); N = 289	(95th percentile)
Huang et al. ( 2006 )
Taiwan (undated): Calculated from urinary metabolite data for MEHP; pregnant women; N = 28	5.17 (median)	—	—	—	—
Chen et al. ( 2008 )
Taiwan (undated): Calculated from urinary metabolite	Age 21 to 67 y:	—	—	—	—
data for MEHP; N = 60 (41 female, 18 male)	33.9 (median); 0.1
	to 309.6 (range)
^aDaily intake calculated from reported urinary metabolite data, as described in text. One half detection limit used for non-detect results.
NA = Not available

Table 9 DiNP exposure estimates.

	DiNP Intake (μgkg^−1d^−1)
Study	Adult	Teen	Child	Toddler	Infant
Present evaluation
Using method described in Clark et al. (2003b) and	Age 20 to 70 y:	Age 12 to 19 y:	Age 5 to 11 y:	Age 0.5 to 4 y:	Age 0 to 0.5 y:
concentrations in Table 2. Median intake, based on ingestion of food, drinking water, dust/soil, and inhalation of air using data compiled from various countries and various years. Data format: median (95th percentile)	0.67 (2.0)	0.67 (2.6)	1.3 (5.5)	2.1 (8.7)	0.76 (9.9)
Wormuth et al. ( 2006 ) + suppl data
Europe: based on oral, inhalation, and dermal	Age 18 to 80 y:	Age 11 to 18 y:	Age 4 to 10 y:	Age 1 to 3 y:	Age 0 to 1 y:
exposure pathways, including consumer products;	F: 0.01; 0.01; 0.26	F: 0.01; 0.01; 0.24	0.00; 0.14; 6.22	0.01; 5.16; 75.34	0.02; 16.03; 152.40
data format = low, intermediate, high estimate; F = female; M = male	M: 0.01; 0.01; 0.28	M: 0.01; 0.01; 0.29
Tsumura et al. ( 2003 )
Japan (2001): Based on total diet study of hospital food; calculated using body weight of 50 kg	0.094	—	—	—	—
Tsumura et al. ( 2001a )
Japan (1999): Based on total diet study of hospital food; calculated using body weight of 50 kg	1.3	—	—	—	—
Gill et al. ( 2001 )
Estimates compiled from various sources
Exposure due to mouthing of children's products	—	—	—	Age 1 to 3 y: 39	Age 0.3 to
				(average); 5–228	0.5 y: 73.9
				(range)	(95th percentile)
All sources other than mouthing children's products	—	—	—	Age 0.3 to 3 y:	—
				50 (average)
Fromme et al. ( 2007b )
Germany (2005): N = 50 (27 female + 23 male)	Age 14 to 60 y:
Calculated from urinary metabolite data: MHiNP	Total: 0.7 (median); 3.5 (95th percentile)		—	—	—
	Female: 0.6 (3.5); Male: 0.8 (3.5)		—	—	—
Wittassek et al. ( 2007b )
Germany: Calculated from sum of urinary metabolite data for MOiNP + MHiNP; male and female adults; data format: median; 95th percentile; (range)	Age 20 to 29 y:
1988 (N = 60)	0.20; 1.4; (0.04–2.2)	—	—	—	—
1989 (N = 60)	0.24; 2.2; (0.03–12.9)	—	—	—	—
1991 (N = 60)	0.22; 4.5; (0.05–20.2)	—	—	—	—
1993 (N = 60)	0.27; 1.7; (0.04–2.6)	—	—	—	—
1996 (N = 145)	0.33; 1.6; (0.02–3.4)	—	—	—	—
1998 (N = 68)	0.30; 7.8; (0.06–11.7)	—	—	—	—
1999 (N – 60)	0.32; 1.9; (0.05–3.1)	—	—	—	—
2001 (N = 60)	0.34; 2.3; (0.10–4.4)	—	—	—	—
2003 (N = 59)	0.40; 1.5; (0.12–3.2)	—	—	—	—
Total male (N = 325)	0.27; 1.7; (NA)	—	—	—	—
Total female (N = 307)	0.32; 1.7; (NA)	—	—	—	—
Overall total (N = 632)	0.29; 1.7; (0.03–20.2)	—	—	—	—
Wittassek and Angerer ( 2008 )
Germany: Calculated from urinary metabolite data for	Age 6 to 80 y:			—	—
MiNP + MOiNP + MHiNP + MCiNP; N = 102	0.6 (median); 36.8 (maximum)
CDC (2003) ^a
USA (NHANES 1999–2000): Calculated	Age 6+ y (N = 2,541): Total: 6.1; Male: 7.0; Female: 5.5			—	—
from urinary metabolite data for MiNP;	Age 20+ y	Age 12 to 19 y	Age 6 to 11 y	—	—
95th percentile	(N = 1461): 6.6	(N = 752): 1.5	(N = 328): 4.7
David ( 2000 )
USA (1988–1994; NHANES III). Intake calculated	Age 20 to 60 y:	—	—	—	—
from urinary metabolite data for MiNP (Blount	0.21 (geo mean);
et al. 2000); N = 289	1.08 (95th percentile)
Kohn et al. ( 2000 )
USA (1988–1994; NHANES III). Intake calculated	Age 20 to 60 y:	—	—	—	—
from urinary metabolite data for MiNP (Blount et al. 2000); N = 289	1.7 (95th percentile)
NA = Not available

Table 10 Summary comparison of indirect and biomarker methods.

	PE Intake (μgkg^−1d^−1)^a
PE	Indirect Studies	Biomarker Studies^b
DMP	Diet only: 0.11	0.031 to 0.87 [0.38]
	Diet, air, dust: 0.16 to 0.38
	Diet, air, dust, consumer products: 0.90
DEP	Diet only: 0.007 to 0.13	0.77 to 12.3 [5.5]
	Diet, air, dust: 0.051 to 0.46
	Diet, air, dust, consumer products: 4.27
DBP	Diet only: 0.26 to 0.29	0.58 to 5.3 [1.7]
	Diet, air, dust: 0.44 to 2.7
	Diet, air, dust, consumer products: 4.82
DiBP	Diet only: 0.57	0.08 to 1.7 [1.45]
	Diet, air, dust: 0.76
	Diet, air, dust, consumer products: 0.48
BBP	Diet only: 0.068 to 0.23	0.093 to 0.88 [0.3]
	Diet, air, dust: 0.062 to 0.50
	Diet, air, dust, consumer products: 0.25
DEHP	Diet only: 2.43 to 10.4	0.60 to 33.9 [2.7]
	Diet, air, dust: 2.1 to 11
	Diet, air, dust, consumer products: 2.16
DiNP	Diet only: 0.094 to 1.3	0.21 to 0.7 [0.45]
	Diet, air, dust: 0.67
	Diet, air, dust, consumer products: 0.01
^aAdult, median or geometric mean; see Tables 3 to 9 for source of information. Excludes studies of pregnant women.
^bFormat: range [median].

Figure 1 Estimates of median DEP intake to adults.

Figure 3 Estimates of median DEHP intake to adults.

Figure 2 Estimates of median BBP intake to adults.

Clark , K , Cousins , I T and Mackay , D . 2003b . “ Assessment of critical exposure pathways ” . In Phthalate Esters: The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, Vol 3 Anthropogenic Compounds, Part Q , Edited by: Staples , C A . 227 – 62 . Heidelberg , , Germany : Springer-Verlag .

 Google Scholar

Clark , K. 2008 . “ Report on Update to the Phthalate Ester Concentration Database—2007 ” . Arlington , , VA, USA : Prepared for American Chemistry Council . June

 Google Scholar

Wormuth , M , Scheringer , M Vollenweider , M . 2006 . What are the sources of exposure to eight frequently used phthalic acid esters in Europeans? . Risk Anal , 26 ( 3 ) : 803 – 24 . Supplemental calculations provided by Matthias Wormuth to Kathryn Clark, November 15, 2007

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Fromme , H , Gruber , L Schlummer , M . 2007b . Intake of phthalates and di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate: Results of the Integrated Exposure Assessment Survey based on duplicate diet samples and biomonitoring data . Environ Internat , 33 : 1012 – 20 .

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Itoh , H , Yoshida , K and Masunaga , S . 2007 . Quantitative identification of unknown exposure pathways of phthalates based on measuring their metabolites in human urine . Environ Sci Technol , 41 ( 13 ) : 4542 – 7 .

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Huang , P C , Kuo , P L and Lee , C C . 2006 . The association between urinary monoester phthalates and thyroid hormone in pregnant women . Epidemiology , 17 ( 6 ) Suppl:S195, November 2006

 Google Scholar

Tsumura , Y , Ishimitsu , S Saito , I . 2001a . Eleven phthalate esters and di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate in one-week duplicate diet samples obtained from hospitals and their estimated daily intake . Food Addit Contam , 18 ( 5 ) : 449 – 60 .

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Calafat , A M and McKee , R H . 2006 . Integrating biomonitoring exposure data into the risk assessment process: Phthalates (diethyl phthalate and di[2-ethylhexyl] phthalate) as a case study . Environ Health Perspect , 114 ( 11 ) : 1783 – 9 .

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Marsee , K , Woodruff , T J Axelrad , D A . 2006 . Estimated daily phthalate exposures in a population of mothers of male infants exhibiting reduced anogenital distance . Environ Health Perspect , 114 ( 6 ) : 805 – 9 .

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Brock , J W , Caudill , S P Silva , M J . 2002 . Phthalate monoesters levels in the urine of young children . Bull Environ Contam Toxicol , 68 : 309 – 14 .

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

David , RM. 2000 . Exposure to phthalate esters . Environ Health Perspect , 108 ( 10 ) : A440

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kohn , M C , Parham , F Masten , S A . 2000 . Human exposure estimates for phthalates . Environ Health Perspect , 108 ( 10 ) : A440 – 2 .

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Chen , M-L , Chen , J-S Tang , C-L . 2008 . The internal exposure of Taiwanese to phthalate—An evidence of intensive use of plastic materials . Environ Internat , 34 : 79 – 85 .

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Franco , A , Prevedouros , K Alli , R . 2007 . Comparison and analysis of different approaches for estimating the human exposure to phthalate esters . Environ Internat , 33 : 283 – 91 .

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Wilson , N K , Chuang , J C Lyu , C . 2003 . Aggregate exposures of nine preschool children to persistent organic pollutants at day care and at home . J Expos Anal Environ Epidemiol , 13 : 187 – 202 .

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Tsumura , Y , Ishimitsu , S Saito , I . 2003 . Estimated daily intake of plasticizers in 1-week duplicate diet samples following regulation of DEHP-containing PVC gloves in Japan . Food Addit Contam , 20 ( 4 ) : 317 – 24 .

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Wittassek , M , Wiesmuller , G A Koch , H M . 2007b . Internal phthalate exposure over the last two decades—A retrospective human biomonitoring study . Int J Hyg Environ Health , 210 ( 3–4 ) : 319 – 33 .

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Wittassek , M and Angerer , J . 2008 . Phthalates: metabolism and exposure . Int J Andrology , 31 ( 2 ) : 131 – 8 .

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Blount , B C , Silva , M J Caudill , S P . 2000 . Levels of seven urinary phthalate metabolites in a human reference population . Environ Health Perspect , 108 ( 10 ) : 979 – 82 .

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Jensen , A A and Knudsen , H K . 2006 . “ Total Health Assessment of Chemicals in Indoor Climate from Various Consumer Products ” . Danish Environmental Protection Agency: Survey of Chemical Substances in Consumer Products No. 75 . Available at http://www.mst.dk/Udgivelser/Publications/2006/12/87-7052-214-6.htm

 Google Scholar

Fujimaki , K , Yoshinaga , J Watanabe , C . 2006 . Estimation of intake level of di (2-ethyhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in Japanese pregnant women based on measurement of concentrations of three urinary metabolites . Nippon Eiseigaku Zasshi (Japanese Journal of Hygiene) , 61 ( 3 ) : 340 – 7 .

 Google Scholar

Wittassek , M , Heger , W Koch , H M . 2007a . Daily intake of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) by German children – A comparison of two estimation models based on urinary DEHP metabolite levels . Int J Hyg Environ Health , 210 ( 1 ) : 35 – 42 .

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Gill , U S , Craan , A G Subramanian , K S . 2001 . “ Diisononyl phthalate: Chemistry, environmental path, and toxicology ” . In Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, vol 172 , Edited by: Ware , G W . 87 – 127 . New York , , NY, USA : Springer-Verlag .

 Google Scholar