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Regular Papers

Interdependent living: labouring families and the Swedish mining industry in the late seventeenth century

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Pages 136-155 | Received 01 May 2015, Accepted 14 Oct 2016, Published online: 25 Nov 2016
 

Abstract

The history of the labouring family has gained increasing attention among European scholars in the last decades, but in Sweden, it remains an under-researched topic. Still, in the early modern period, labourers and their families made vital contributions to the country’s important mining industry. This paper examines the household economy of labouring families related to the mining industry in two Swedish areas in the late seventeenth century. On the basis on account books and court records, combined with demographic data, we explore the diversity of livelihoods and the complex web of interdependencies that made this economy feasible. We show that, while monetary remuneration was limited, wage labour in mines and metalwork gave the labouring family access to resources in the form of land, labour and credit beyond its own assets. Within the household, the man generally worked for wages, while his wife made use of the use-rights that came with his employment. The mining industry, and thereby also Swedish state finances, depended on this diverse family economy. In conclusion, interdependence, rather than the independent economic position described by classical models of early modern households, characterized the household economy of the labouring family.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Gender and Work project group at Uppsala University and the anonymous reviewers for valuable comments on earlier versions of this article.

Notes

1. Riksarkivet (RA), Bergskollegium (BK), Advokatfiskalens arkiv (AA), Domböcker Västernorrland och Jämtland 1695–1766, Gruvting Ljusnedal, 12/6 1697.

2. RA, von Hermanssonska arkivet 4, Inventarie-förteckning vid Ferna med underlydande hemman 1706.

3. Landsarkivet i Östersund (ÖLA), Ljusnedals bruks arkiv (LBA), Protokollbok 1690, vol. 10, pp. 126r–127r.

4. See for instance RA, BK, Kammarkontorets arkiv, Räkenskaper för Salagruvan, vol. GVI:3, 1645, 1653, 1658, 1669. See also Sommarin (Citation1908, pp. 160–162).

5. Landsarkivet i Uppsala (ULA), Länsstyrelsen i Västmanland. Landskansliet, vol. DI:19, Förteckning av de anställda vid bruken 1683; RA, Mantalslängder Gunnilbo, Norberg, Skinnskatteberg 1681–1683; Engelsbergs arkiv, Salbergets arkiv, G Ia, lönelistor 1682. The total number of 587 employees includes 21 female workers from Sala silver mine who in 1682 were employed to crush and sort the ore before it reached the foundries.

6. ÖLA, LBA, Protokollsbok vol. 10, 1690, pp. 126–127; Huvudbok med verifikationer, vol. 27, 1692–1696, pp. 241–245.

7. RA, Mantalslängder, Ljusnedal 1994.

8. ÖLA, LBA, Huvudbok jämte verifikationer 1696, vol. 27, pp. 241–242. In 1687, a rock-blaster was dismissed from Ljusnedal because he was too expensive. Instead of being paid by the day, he received an annual wage of 350 copper daler. ÖLA, LBA, Protokollbok, vol. 2, pp. 32, 38.

9. ULA, Ramnäs bruk, Bruksböcker 1680–1684, vol. G1:3, pp. 108, 279; RA, Rydboholmsamlingen, Trädgårdsräkenskaper med kvittenser, vol. E7769: lit A; ÖLA, Vikens gårdsarkiv. Viken i Alsen. Räkning 24 mars 1699; ULA, Bernhammars bruks, Räkenskapsböcker 1685–1704; RA, Hovstallet, Strömsholms och Kungsörs stallstat, räkenskaper 1688, vol. G:5, pp. 52–54; RA, Strömsholms slott, Räkenskaper 1687–1690, vol. G1:10, pp. 411, 440, 469, 508.

10. See for instance ÖLA, LBA, Räkenskaper 1691, vol. 12, p. 133; ÖLA, LBA, Höök’s räkenskaper 1696, vol. 28, pp. 124, 145.

11. ÖLA, LBA, Huvudbok 1697, vol. 31, supplik 9/3 1697, avskrift, pp. 154v–156r.

12. The amount of transportation needed was vast, which the following figures from the early seventeenth century may illustrate. In 1619, wood corresponding to a stack of one metre height, one metre breadth and 39,060 metres length, was transported to Sala silver mine. In the same year, the hoists at the mine, both hand-driven and horse-driven hoists, had lifted people, raw materials and tools 17,887 times (RA, Bergsbruk: Salbergets räkenskaper 1537–1620, Löner och kassabok 1618–1619, vol. 85:2).

13. RA, Riksregistraturet, F, 1534–1536, Privilegier för Salberget, 18/7/1535, p. 197; Kongl. stadgar, förordningar, privilegier och resolutioner angående justitien och hushållningen wid bergwerken och bruken […], Förordning 21/10/1649, pp. 189–190, Förordning 15/11/1664, p. 225, Privilegier 9/8/1673, pp. 286–287.

14. RA, BK, AA, Domböcker Västernorrland och Jämtland 1695–1766, Gruvting Ljusnedal 25/5 1697 § 2.

15. ULA, Sala gruvrätt, vol. AI:1, Gruvting 9/1/1652; RA, BK, Bergsverksrelationer E2b, Sala bergslag, vol. 1a, 1652–1697, vol. 1b, 1648–1700, ‘Acter angående ägorne i åcker och eng samt Grufwejorden wid Sahlberget’, 1696–1698; RA, BK, Bergsverksrelationer E2b, Sala bergslag, vol. 1b, 1648–1700, Kungl. Maj brev 28/5/1661, § 2.

16. ÖLA, LBA, Protokollbok, vol. 10, koncept 1690 § 9; ÖLA, Heimygdas deposition, nr 383–499, vol. 2B, 443a, brevkopia, 6/12/1688; ÖLA, LBA, Räkenskaper, vol. 5, Brev, 23/11/1688, p. 69.

17. RA, BK, AA, Domböcker Västernorrland och Jämtland 1695–1766, Gruvting Ljusnedal 30/8/1697 § 6.

18. Formally, the land belonged to the state (‘crown land’) and was allotted for the requirements of the copperworks.

19. RA, BK, AA, Domböcker Västernorrland och Jämtland 1695–1766, Gruvting Ljusnedal 3 & 10/7 1697 § 5.

20. ULA, Horndals bruk, Valla masugn, Kapitalbok 1656–1657, vol. GI:3, p. 15; RA, BK, Kammarkontorets arkiv, Huvudbok med verifikationer 1689, vol. G I:60, pp. 447–450; ULA, Björnhyttans masugn, Avräkningsbok 1696–1697, vol. AI:6, pp. 39, 57. Cf. Nordström (Citation1952, p. 87).

21. ÖLA, LBA, Huvudbok 1688, vol. 5, kvitto 64. Cf. Jansson (Citation1958, p. 44).

22. ULA, Horndals bruk, Valla Masugn, Kapitalbok 1656–1657, vol. GI: 3, pp. 15, 28, 71, 73; see also RA, Rydboholmssamlingen , vol. E7701, Extrakt ur Nordansjös bruksbok 2/5 1688; ÖLA, LBA, Protokollbok, vol. 10, koncept 10/8 1690 § 8–12.

23. Engelsbergs arkiv, Salbergets arkiv, Huvudbok, vol. G Ia:15, lönelistor 1687; Engelsbergs arkiv, Salbergets arkiv, Arbetarförteckningar och mönsterrullor 1687–1884, vol. D IIIa, Förteckning på arbetsfolket vid Salas hyttor och bokverk 1687; ULA, Björnhyttans bruk, Avräkningsbok 1681–1682, vol. A I:4, p. 18.

24. ULA, Bernshammars bruk, Räkenskapsbok 1687–1704, p. 54.

25. RA, BK, AA, Domböcker Västernorrland och Jämtland 1695–1766, Gruvting Ljusnedal 8/5 1697 § 13.

26. RA, Svea hovrätt (SH), Advokatfiskalens arkiv (AA), Renoverade domböcker Jämtlands län, vol. 1, pp. 898r–899v; RA, SH, AA, Renoverade domböcker Västernorrland, vol. 13a, pp. 254r–255r, fol. 256v–257v.

27. RA, BK, AA, Domböcker Västernorrland och Jämtland 1695–1766, Gruvting Ljusnedal 30/8 1697 § 2.

28. RA, SH, AA, Renoverade domböcker Västmanland 1694, vol. 37, p. 1314v. For similar cases see: BA, Kammarkontorets arkiv, Räkenskaper för Sala 1660–1690-t, vol. GVI:6, ‘List with those who have permission to search for ore on the dump heaps 1658’; ULA, Gunnilbo kyrkoarkiv, Skrivelser 1637–1778, vol. J I:4, kopia av Skinnskattebergs bergslags häradsrätt, 11/10 1695; RA, BK, Bergsverksrelationer E2b Volym 1 Sala bergslag 1648–1700, Handlingar angående Sala gruva, 1600-t, Avskrift ca 1697.

29. ULA, Ramnäs bruk, Bruksbok 1684–1689, vol. G1:4, p. 310 & Avräkningsbok 1674–1690, G2:1, pp. 104, 114.

30. RA, Lantmäteristyrelsens arkiv, Västmanlands län, Gunnilbo, Ramnäs & Sura socken.

31. ÖLA, LBA, Protokollsbok 1690, vol. 10, p. 122.

32. ÖLA, LBA, Huvudbok 1688, vol. 5, p. 20v.

33. E.g. RA, BK, AA, Domböcker Västernorrland och Jämtland 1695–1766, Gruvting Ljusnedal 30/8 1697 § 2.

34. ÖLA, LBA, Protokollsbok 1688, vol. 4, pp. 65–70; ÖLA, LBA, Protokollsbok 1690, vol. 10, pp. 116v, 122–127; ÖLA, Heimbygdas Deposition, nr. 383–499, vol. 2B, nr. 443 a–d.

35. ÖLA, LBA, Huvudbok 1691, vol. 14, pp. 194–195; ÖLA, Heimbygdas Deposition, nr. 383–499, vol. 2B, nr.443 a–t.

36. ULA, Gunnilbo kyrkoarkiv, Bouppteckningar 1689–1846, vol. P IV:2, 2/11/1694.

37. ULA, Gunnilbo kyrkoarkiv, Bouppteckningar 1689–1846, vol. P IV:2, 16/1/1695.

38. ÖLA, LBA, Huvudbok jämte verifikationer 1696, vol. 27, pp. 241–242.

39. ÖLA, LBA, Huvudbok 1697, vol. 31, Supplik 9/3 1697, avskrift, pp. 154v–156r.

40. ÖLA, LBA, Huvudbok 1697, vol. 31, Suppliker och avskrifter resolutioner, Lit. A–E, 29/4 1696, 21/8 1696, pp. 144–145.

41. RA, BK, AA, Domböcker Västernorrland och Jämtland 1695–1766, Gruvting Ljusnedal 30/8 1696 § 6–9.

42. RA, BK, AA, Domböcker Västernorrland och Jämtland 1695–1766, Gruvting Ljusnedal 8/5 1697 § 4.

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