Prevalence and Psychosocial Correlates of Party-Drug Use and Associated Problems among University Students in the Netherlands

Figures & data

Table 1. Prevalence of alcohol, cannabis and party-drug use among students (N = 446); men (132) and women (314).

	Lifetime							Monthly drinks/joints
	Men		Women		Total			Men		Women		Total
	%	N	%	N	%	N	χ²(1)	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	U(z)
Alcohol	97.0	128	91.1	286	92.8	414	4.84^*	45.4	42.6	19.9	25.5	27.44	33.6	11,454.5 (−7.47)^***
Cannabis	60.6	80	34.1	107	41.9	187	26.86^***	4.6	16.3	0.3	1.5	1.59	9.1	13,711.0 (−7.39)^***
	Lifetime							Last year ≥ 2 (%)
	Men		Women		Total			Men		Women		Total
	%	N	%	N	%	N	χ²(1)	%	N	%	N	%	N	χ²(1)
Party-drugs	38.6	51	16.2	51	22.9	102	26.42^***	22.7	30	11.1	35	14.6	65	10.01^**
Ecstasy	34.8	46	14.3	45	20.4	91	24.10^***	15.9	21	9.2	29	11.2	50	4.16^*
MDMA	23.5	31	9.2	29	13.5	60	16.21^***	3.8	5	3.5	11	3.6	16	ǂ
Amphetamine	12.9	17	5.4	17	7.6	34	7.35^**	6.1	8	1.3	4	2.7	12	ǂ
Cocaine	15.2	20	3.5	11	7.0	31	19.50^***	8.3	11	1.6	5	3.6	16	ǂ
Crystal meth	1.5	2	0	0	0.4	2	ǂ	0	0	0	0	0	0	ǂ
GHB	0.8	1	1.9	6	1.6	7	ǂ	0.8	1	0	0	0.2	1	ǂ
NPS	9.8	13	5.4	17	6.7	30	2.91	3.0	4	3.2	10	3.1	14	ǂ

Note.

^* p < .05;

^** p < .01;

^*** p < .001; ǂ Could not be calculated: Expected cell count less than 5.

MDMA = 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine; GHB = Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid; NPS = New psychoactive substances.

Table 2. Frequency of health and psychosocial problems due to party-drug use (N = 99^*).

	Once		≥ 2
In the last year…	N	%	N	%
After taking party-drugs, I have felt sick or unwell (e.g., feeling nauseated, passing out).	20	20.2	10	10.1
While taking party-drugs, I have said or done embarrassing things.	17	17.2	8	8.1
I have not gone to work or missed classes at school because of party-drug use, a hangover (including the “Tuesday blues”) or illness caused by taking party-drugs.	17	17.2	7	7.1
I have taken foolish risks when I have been taking party-drugs.	17	17.2	4	4
When taking party-drugs, I have done impulsive things I regretted later.	11	11.1	5	5.1
The quality of my work or school work has suffered because of my party-drug use.	10	10.1	5	5.1
I have neglected my obligations to family, work, or school because of party-drug use.	9	9.1	3	3
I have had unprotected sex (e.g., without condom) under the influence of party-drugs.	6	6.1	4	4
I have become very rude, obnoxious, or insulting after taking party-drugs.	4	3	4	3
When taking party-drugs, I had sex with someone I would normally not have sex with.	6	6.1	1	1
My party-drug use has gotten me into sexual situations I later regretted.	5	5.1	1	1
My taking party-drugs has created problems between myself and my boyfriend/girlfriend/spouse, parents, or other near relatives.	4	4	2	2
When taking party-drugs, I have been verbally abusive or have threatened someone.	2	2	1	1
I got into contact with the police after taking party-drugs.	2	2	0	0
When taking party-drugs, I have been physically abusive (e.g., slap or push someone).	2	2	0	0
I was taken to a hospital after taking party-drugs.	1	1	0	0
I have had sex while I did not want to, under the influence of party-drugs.	1	1	0	0
I was involved in an accident after taking party-drugs.	1	1	0	0
I have driven a car when I knew I had taken too much party-drugs to drive safely.	0	0	0	0
Total	22	22.2	42	42.4

Note.

^* Of the 102 lifetime party-drug users, 3 did not fill out the items on health and psychosocial problems.

Table 3. Bootstrapped means and standard deviations of characteristics among never-party-drug users, low frequent (≤1 last year) party-drug users and regular (≥2 last year) party-drug users.

	Never-users N = 323	Low frequent users N = 30	Regular users N = 65	Total N = 418	F	Games-Howell Post-hoc
Age	21.4 (3.4)	21.9 (2.6)	21.7 (1.9)	21.5 (3.1)	.59
Monthly alcohol units	19.4 (22.5)	55.8 (55.9)	51.9 (45.7)	27.1 (33.6)	44.91^***	Never < low, regular
Monthly cannabis units	0.8 (7.1)	2.5 (5.7)	3.9 (12.2)	1.4 (8.1)	4.23^*	Never < regular
Injunctive norm parents	6.3 (12.7)	13.2 (17.8)	18.5 (22.9)	8.6 (15.8)	19.03^***	Never < low, regular
Injunctive norm friends	28.5 (28.6)	54.8 (29.1)	71.1 (22.7)	37.0 (32.1)	70.48^***	Never < low < regular
Descriptive norm friends	15.15 (19.9)	34.9 (21)	50.9 (22.9)	22.1 (24.4)	88.73^***	Never < low < regular
Motivation to comply parents	63.3 (35)	51.1 (27.7)	28.2 (24.3)	57.0 (35.4)	31.04^***	Never > low > regular
Motivation to comply friends	39.9 (33.5)	42.8 (25)	45.1 (26.8)	40.9 (31.9)	.78
Neuroticism	6.4 (2.7)	5.5 (2.1)	5.5 (2.4)	6.2 (2.6)	4.26^*	Never > low, regular
Extraversion	8.1 (2.8)	9.6 (2.3)	9.7 (2.4)	8.5 (2.8)	11.99^***	Never < low, regular
Conscientiousness	10.8 (2.3)	9.9 (2)	9.6 (2.9)	10.5 (2.4)	8.19^***	Never > low, regular
Impulsiveness	2.1 (2)	2.9 (2.6)	2.7 (2.3)	2.3 (2.1)	3.51^*	Never < regular
Aggressiveness	12.1 (7.1)	13.1 (7.4)	11.5 (8.5)	12.1 (7.3)	.47

Note. df = 2, 421;

^* p < .05;

^** p < .01;

^*** p < .001.

Table 4. Predictors of lifetime party-drug use (no/yes; N = 418).

	Univariate model	Multivariate model
	OR (95% BCA CI)
Age^a	1.06 (0.86–1.30)	1.02 (0.75–1.39)
Male sex	3.25 (2.05–5.15)^***	2.72 (1.22–6.04)^*
Alcohol^a	2.78 (2.09–3.70)^***	1.44 (0.97–2.13)
Cannabis^a	1.41 (1.05–1.90)	0.93 (0.66–1.30)
Not living with parents	2.46 (1.31–4.62)^**	1.19 (0.50–2.84)
Fraternity/sorority member	2.37 (1.51–3.73)^***	0.72 (0.34–1.50)
Injunctive norm parents^a	1.75 (1.43–2.15)^***	1.27 (0.96-1.67)
Injunctive norm friends^a	3.46 (2.61–4.58)^***	1.59 (1.03–2.46)^*
Descriptive norm friends^a	3.59 (2.74–4.70)^***	2.39 (1.60–3.58)^***
Motivation to comply parents^a	0.45 (0.35–0.58)^***	0.44 (0.31–0.62)^***
Motivation to comply friends^a	1.12 (0.89–1.39)	1.78 (1.22–2.60)^*
Neuroticism^a	0.69 (0.54–0.88)^***	1.23 (0.84–1.81)
Extraversion^a	1.83 (1.42–2.37)^***	1.41 (0.95–2.09)
Conscientiousness^a	0.64 (0.51–0.80)^***	0.76 (0.50–1.14)
Impulsiveness^a	1.34 (1.07–1.67)^*	0.79 (0.51–1.23)
Aggressiveness^a	0.99 (0.79–1.25)	1.01 (0.72–1.41)

Note. Multivariate model χ²(16) = 187,531, p < .001, R² = .36 (Cox & Snell); R² = .55 (Nagelkerke). ^aPer SD increase; Age SD = 3.5; Alcohol SD = 33.6; Cannabis SD = 8.1, Injunctive norm parents SD = 15.8; injunctive norm friends SD = 32.1; Descriptive norm friends SD = 24.2; Motivation to comply parents SD = 35.4; Motivation to comply friends SD = 31.9; Neuroticism SD = 2.6; Extraversion SD = 2.8; Conscientiousness SD = 2.4; Impulsiveness SD = 2.1; Aggressiveness SD = 7.3.

^* bootstrapped p < .05;

^** bootstrapped p < .01;

^*** bootstrapped p ≤ .001.

Table 5. Predictors of regular (≥2 last year) party-drug use (N = 95).

	Univariate model	Multivariate model ^b
	OR (95% BCA CI)
Age	1.02 (0.52–1.98)
Male sex	0.65 (0.29–1.47)
Alcohol	0.95 (0.72–1.25)
Cannabis	0.96 (0.74–1.24)
Not living with parents	1.11 (0.34–3.69)
Fraternity/sorority member	1.09 (0.48–2.49)
Injunctive norm parents	1.22 (0.88–1.69)
Injunctive norm friends	2.39 (1.41–4.06)^**	1.85 (0.97–3.51)^*
Descriptive norm friends	2.24 (1.36–3.66)^***	1.92 (1.03–3.56)^*
Motivation to comply parents	0.31 (0.17–0.57)^***	0.27 (0.14–0.54)^***
Motivation to comply friends	1.26 (0.76–2.07)
Neuroticism	1.05 (0.64–1.72)
Extraversion	1.09 (0.65–1.80)
Conscientiousness	0.89 (0.60–1.33)
Impulsiveness	0.95 (0.65–1.39)
Aggressiveness	0.84 (0.57–1.24)

Note: Multivariate model χ²(3) = 31,170, p < .001, R² = .27 (Cox & Snell); R² = .37 (Nagelkerke). ^a Per SD increase; Age SD = 3.5; Alcohol SD = 33.6; Cannabis SD = 8.1, Injunctive norm parents SD = 15.8; injunctive norm friends SD = 32.1; Motivation to comply parents SD = 35.4; Motivation to comply friends SD = 31.9; Neuroticism SD = 2.6; Extraversion SD = 2.8; Conscientiousness SD = 2.4; Impulsiveness SD = 2.1; Aggressiveness SD = 7.3. ^bTo prevent overfitting problems, only variables with p < .10 in the univariate analysis were included.

^* Bootstrapped p < .05;

^** Bootstrapped p < .01;

^*** Bootstrapped p < .001.