Novel Psychoactive Substance Use and Psychological Trauma: A Multimethodological Analysis

Figures & data

Table 1. MMPI-2 scales connected to emotion regulation.

Scale	Symptoms related to elevated scores include:
Neuroticism /negative emotionality (NEGE)	worry, nervousness, anxiety, tension, stress, anger, poor emotional control, guilt, fears, borderline-type attachment patterns, seeking and rejecting help, suicidal and self-mutilating behavior
Low positive emotionality / Extroversion (LPE)	social disengagement, lack of positive emotions, anhedonia, anergy, dissatisfaction, low self-esteem, giving up quickly in the face of difficulties, impoverished emotional life, depressive withdrawal, and schizoid under-involvement
Demoralization (RCd)	Information on the subject’s current level of emotional (dys)functioning: general demoralization, complaints of anxiety and depression, insecurity, pessimism, low self-esteem, tension, and expectations of failure.
Low positive emotions (RC2)	increased risk for depression, insecurity, pessimism, passive social withdrawal, anhedonia, self-reported boredom, isolation, or low energy/low expectations for achievement.
Dysfunctional negative emotions (RC7)	anxiety or anxiety-related disorders, rumination, excessive worry, sensitivity toward criticism, brooding, preoccupation with self-perceived failure, guilt, insecurity, and intrusive, unwanted ideations

Source: Greene (2000), Graham (2000), Nichols (2001), Tellegen et al. (2003).

Table 2. Patient demographics.

	n	%
Total	77	100
Age
Mean	29.52
Range	18–45
Sex
Male	61	79,22
Female	16	20,78
Marital status
Single	63	81,8
In relationship	2	2,6
Married	9	11,7
Divorced	3	3,9
Education
Primary	20	26,0
Vocational	32	41,6
Secondary grammar	16	20,8
College	4	5,2
University	5	6,5
Occupation
Nonprofessional	60	77,9
Intellectual	17	22,1
Place of living
Farm	2	2,6
Village	11	14,3
Town	44	57,1
Metropolitan area	20	26,0
Mother’s education
Primary	18	23,4
Vocational	33	42,9
Secondary grammar	9	11,7
College	11	14,3
University	6	7,8
Father’s education
Primary	10	13,0
Vocational	48	62,3
Secondary grammar	4	5,2
College	5	6,5
University	8	10,4
Musical college	2	2,6
Material deprivation
Yes	45	58,4
No	32	41,6
Parental divorce
Yes	36	46,8
No	41	53,2
Descriptives

Figure 1. Parental substance use.

Figure 2. Substance use.

Note: Substances - (1) synthetic cannabinoids; (2) synthetic cathinones; (3) extasy; (4) amphetamine; (5) cocaine; (6) cannabis; (7) LSD; (8) psilocybin; (9) heroine; (10) alcohol; (11) ketamine; (12) crack cocaine; (13) mescaline.

Table 3. MMPI-2 pathological cases connected to Restructured Clinical Scales (RC) and PSY-5 Scales.

	n	%	Mean	SD
Total	77	100
Demoralization (RCd)
High	44	57.14	70.20	5.32
Low	0	0	0	0
Normal	33	42.86	51.21	7.45
Somatic Complaints (RC1)
High	30	38.96	70.97	6.51
Low	0	0	0	0
Normal	47	61.04	50.72	7.46
Low Positive Emotions (RC2)
High	17	22.08	70.88	5.85
Low	0	0	0	0
Normal	60	77.92	49.07	8.87
Cynicism (RC3)
High	18	23.38	67.61	3.94
Low	0	0	0	0
Normal	59	76.62	50.74	8.42
Antisocial Behavior (RC4)
High	65	84.42	78.20	11.69
Low	0	0	0	0
Normal	12	15.58	54.92	6.36
Ideas of Persecution (RC6)
High	30	38.96	78.33	12.24
Low	0	0	0	0
Normal	47	61.04	50.34	7.03
Dysfunctional Negative Emotions (RC7)
High	43	55.84	72.02	6.60
Low	0	0	0	0
Normal	34	44.16	50.36	8.30
Aberrant Experiences (RC8)
High	43	55.84	78.88	13.11
Low	0	0	0	0
Normal	34	44.16	51.15	6.58
Hypomanic Activation (RC9)
High	27	35.06	70.17	8.60
Low	0	0	0	0
Normal	50	64.94	50.12	8.03
Aggressiveness (AGGR)
High	25	32.47	70.20	4.83
Low	0	0	0	0
Normal	52	67.53	47.65	7.66
Psychoticism (PSYC)
High	36	46.75	77.61	12.89
Low	0	0	0	0
Normal	41	53.25	52.46	11.00
Disconstraint (DISC)
High	35	45.45	70.34	5.79
Low	0	0	0	0
Normal	42	54.54	52.95	7.47
Neuroticism / Negative Emotionality (NEGE)
High	36	46.75	68.80	4.08
Low	0	0	0	0
Normal	41	53.25	52.60	7.75
Introversion / Low positive emotionality (INTR)
High	20	25.97	72.16	7.07
Low	32	41.56	42.67	7.40
Normal	25	32.47	55.40	5.03
Descriptives

Table 4. Correlations between substance use and Restructured Clinical Scales (Rc).

	Demoralization (RCd)	Somatic Complaints (Rc1)	Low Positive Emotions (RC2)	Antisocial Behavior (Rc4)	Ideas of Persecution (Rc6)	Dysfunctional Negative Emotions (RC7)	Aberrant Experiences (Rc8)	Hypomanic Activation (Rc9)
	r	r	r	r	r	r	r	r
SCB	.17	.19	.12	.24	.12	.12	.20	.12
SCH	.02	−0.07	−0.05	−0.02	−0.05	.01	−0.10	.01
XTC	−0.00	−0.07	.00	.06	−0.00	−0.03	−0.16	−0.10
AMPH	.09	.07	.02	.12	.12	.17	.04	.09
COCA	−0.25	−0.22	−0.16	−0.05	−0.20	−0.23	−0.14	−0.02
THC	−0.10	.10	−0.15	.20	.20	−0.00	.16	.18
LSD	.23	.26	.07	.27	.30	.28	.33	.26
PSYL	−0.06	.24	−0.02	.16	.03	.06	.17	.13
HRN	.05	.05	−0.06	.27	.10	.13	.13	.11
ALC	.08	.13	.09	.11	−0.01	.05	.07	.14
KETA	−0.13	−0.10	−0.00	−0.10	−0.11	−0.08	−0.04	.06
CRACK	−0.01	−0.22	−0.13	.11	−0.11	−0.06	−0.12	.12
MESC	.09	.23	.20	.08	.20	.20	.26	−0.00
GHB	−0.03	−0.09	−0.06	.01	−0.04	.00	.02	−0.00
SYNSOL	.14	−0.04	.12	.15	.08	.11	.04	.00

Sig. p < 0.05.

Note: Substances (1) synthetic cannabinoids; (2) synthetic cathinones; (3) extasy; (4) amphetamine; (5) cocaine; (6) cannabis; (7) LSD; (8) psilocybin; (9) heroine; (10) alcohol; (11) ketamine; (12) crack cocaine; (13) mescaline; (14) gamma-hydroxybutyrate - GINA; (15) synthetic solvents. Bold values represent statistically significant results.

Table 5. Correlations between substance use and PSY-5 Scales.

	Aggressiveness (AGGR)	Psychoticism (PSYC)	Disconstraint (DISC)	Negative Emotionality- Neuroticism (NEGE)	Introversion- Low Positive Emotionality (INTR)
	r	r	r	r	r
SCB	.17	.15	.17	.09	.06
SCH	−0.03	−0.05	−0.01	.00	−0.06
XTC	−0.16	.00	.06	−0.02	.00
AMPH	.00	.11	.03	.09	−0.01
COCA	−0.05	−0.10	.10	−0.18	−0.17
THC	.16	.19	.17	−0.12	−0.24
LSD	.07	.32	.09	.20	.01
PSYL	.08	.04	.03	−0.04	−0.11
HRN	.05	.03	.17	.16	−0.00
ALC	.08	.03	.10	.05	−0.01
KETA	.14	−0.08	−0.13	−0.11	.00
CRACK	.13	−0.06	.21	.00	.02
MESC	−0.06	.27	−0.03	.11	.07
GHB	.13	.03	−0.02	.01	−0.00
SYNSOL	.00	.09	.11	.11	.06

Sig. p < 0.05.

Note: Substances (1) synthetic cannabinoids; (2) synthetic cathinones; (3) extasy; (4) amphetamine; (5) cocaine; (6) cannabis; (7) LSD; (8) psilocybin; (9) heroine; (10) alcohol; (11) ketamine; (12) crack cocaine; (13) mescaline; (14) gamma-hydroxybutyrate - GINA; (15) synthetic solvents. Bold values represent statistically significant results.

Greene, R. L. (2000). The MMPI-2: An interpretive manual (2nd ed.). Allyn & Bacon.

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Graham, J. R. (2000). MMPI-2: Assessing personality and psychopathology (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.

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Nichols, D. S. (2001). Essentials of MMPI-2 assessment. John Wiley & Sons.

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Tellegen, A., Ben-Porath, Y. S., McNulty, J. L., Arbisi, P. A., Graham, J. R., & Kaemmer, B. (2003). MMPI-2 restructured clinical (RC) scales: Development, validation, and interpretation. University of Minnesota Press.

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Data availability statement

The quantitative data that support the findings of this study are openly available in the library repository of the University of Pecs at https://pea.lib.pte.hu/handle/pea/34040.