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ABSTRACT
Deliberative democratic theorists often trace their idea that vigorous democracies rely on open deliberation to ancient Athenian democracy. Furthermore, deliberative theorists claim that equal, inclusive, rational, and government responsiveness can reverse trends of political apathy. Although the equal right to speak in the Assembly (isēgoria) was a defining trait of Athenian democracy, we have little evidence for actual ancient deliberative practices. By using the agōnes or formal debates in two of Euripides’ political plays—Suppliant Women and Children of Heracles—as a proxy for such interactive citizen debate, this article explores two main questions: first, to what degree does ancient tragedy reflect expectations of deliberative democracy?; and second, what lessons can be drawn from these dramatized speeches for contemporary debates? Importantly, confirming many key expectations of deliberative democratic theory, Euripides’ agōnes provide additional support for the critique that successful deliberation is not solely rational but requires emotional saliency relevant to the context of the debate. Thus, Euripides’ dramatizations imply that positive deliberation is not simply a matter of increasing communicative opportunities but requires a more robust civic education that includes psychological and philosophical training.
Notes
All translations from the Greek text in the Loeb editions cited are the author’s.
1. Gutmann and Thompson, Why Deliberative Democracy, 8; Fishkin, When the People Speak, 9–13.
2. Saxonhouse, Free Speech and Democracy, 85–110, 29–31; Woodruff, First Democracy, 31–33.
3. Thucydides, The History of the Peloponnesian War, 1.22.
4. For debate on the political dimensions of the festival, see Seaford, “The Social Function of Attic Tragedy”; Burian, “Athenian Tragedy as Democratic Discourse”; Heath, “Iure Principem Locum Tenet.”
5. Lloyd has a much narrower view of the agōn which would exclude supplication encounters. For debate on the purpose and use of Euripides’ agōnes, see Lloyd, The Agon in Euripides, 1–11; Conacher, “Rhetoric and Relevance in Euripidean Drama”; Collard, “Formal Debates in Euripides’ Drama.”
6. Zuntz, Political Plays of Euripides, ix–x; Lloyd, The Agon in Euripides, 16–67.
7. See, for example, Gutmann and Thompson, Why Deliberative Democracy, 6–7; Mutz, Hearing the Other Side, 6–8; Ercan and Dryzek, “The Reach of Deliberative Democracy,” 241–48.
8. Jacobs, Cook, and Delli Carpini, Talking Together, 11–12; Bohman and Regh, “Introduction,” ix–xiii.
9. Most established liberal democracies have experienced long declining voter turnout and other forms of civic engagement. See Teixeira, The Disappearing American Voter.
10. Fung, Empowered Participation, 1–31, 241–43; Chambers, “Deliberative Democratic Theory,” 307–26; Cohen, “Democracy and Liberty,” 185–231.
11. For discussion see Jacobs, Cook, and Carpini, Talking Together, 1–30.
12. Ryfe, “Does Deliberative Democracy Really Work,” 49–54; Curato et al., “Twelve Key Findings,” 28–38.
13. Mutz, Hearing the Other Side, 1–18; Curato et al., “Twelve Key Findings,” 31–32.
14. Hall, Wilson, and Newman, “Evaluating the Short- and Long-Term Effects,” 26–27.
15. Ryfe, “Does Deliberative Democracy Really Work,” 54–57.
16. Young, Inclusion and Democracy, 52–77; Mouffe, “Democracy, Power, and the ‘Political’,” 245–56.
17. Walzer, “Deliberation and What Else?” 58–69; Curato et al., “Twelve Key Findings,” 29–30.
18. Morwood, “Introduction,” 1–36; Toher, “Euripides’ ‘Supplices’,” 332–43.
19. Burian, “Logos and Pathos,” 129–55; Michelini, “The Maze of Logos,” 219–52.
20. Euripides, The Suppliant Women, 115–60, 95–200. Hereafter line references are cited in the text.
21. Foley, Female Acts in Greek Tragedy, 3–18.
22. Hesk, “Euripidean Euboulia,” 119–44.
23. Carter, The Quiet Athenian, 26–52.
24. Aethra already displayed susceptibility to pity in the prologue; Euripides, The Suppliant Women, 25–35, 290–335.
25. Theseus argues on behalf of democracy with the Theban herald, but also brags that the Assembly will approve whatever he wants. Ibid., 390–405, 25–60.
26. Allan, “Introduction to the Children of Heracles,” 21–58.
27. Harris, “Introduction,” 1–24.
28. Euripides, Children of Heracles, 130–80.
29. Parker, “Reciprocity in Greek Religion,” 105–27; Belfiore, Murder among Friends, 41–42.
30. Adcock and Mosley, Diplomacy in Ancient Greece, 10–12.
31. Burnett, “Tribe and City,” note 29, 22.
32. For discussion of the Heracles myth, see Brommer, Heracles.
33. While the date this play was first performed is unknown, it was likely in the years 427–431 BCE. See Allan, “Introduction to the Children of Heracles,” 54–56.
34. For further discussion of Euripides’ inclusion of marginalized voices, see Zeitlin, “Argive Festival of Hera.”
35. Euripides, Phoenician Women, 470–525; Euripides, The Bacchae, 215–365.
36. See Ryfe, “Does Deliberative Democracy Really Work.”
37. One famous example is the debate between Polyneices and Eteocles intended to prevent their self-slaughter in the battle that will kill the seven Argive generals. See Euripides, Phoenician Women, 445–640.
38. Warren and Pearse, Designing Deliberative Democracy; LeDuc, “Electoral Reform.”
39. For example, see Warren and Pearse, Designing Deliberative Democracy.”
40. For example, see Johnson, Deliberative Democracy for the Future, 100–112.
41. See Mouffe, “Democracy, Power, and the ‘Political’.”
42. See, for example, Plato, The Gorgias, 447–61; Aristotle, The Art of Rhetoric, 1378b–92a.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Marlene K. Sokolon
Marlene K. Sokolon is associate professor of political science at Concordia University, Montréal, Canada. She specializes in ancient political thought but has broader interests in justice, ethics, and political deliberation. Her research focuses on the political significance of boundaries and points of nexus in traditional dichotomies, such as reason and emotion, nature and nurture, or poetry and philosophy. Currently, she is working on the political thought of Euripides and the vital contribution of literary genres to democratic stability.