The epistemology of extremism, bias, and violence in American schools: the shift from religious and racial profiling to social belonging and an identity-agnostic perspective

Figures & data

Figure 1. Educational displacement theory and model of radicalization. Source: Sabic-El-Rayess (2021). How do people radicalize? International Journal of Educational Development, 87, 102499.

Table 1. Zero-order correlations between continuous variables.

Variable	2	3	4	5
1. Educational displacement	.48**	.52**	−.66**	−.50**
2. Experiences of bias	–	.54**	−.47**	−.28**
3. Experiences of bullying		–	−.53**	−.40**
4. Teacher as mentor relationship			–	.51**
5. Teacher bias confidence				–

Table 2. Regression coefficients of race, ethnicity, family income, activities inside and outside school, the ability of teachers to deal with issues of bias, experiences of discrimination and bullying, and a teacher as mentor relationship on educational displacement.

Variable	Model 1			Model 2			Model 3
	B	β	SE	B	β	SE	B	β	SE
Constant	1.61		0.74	1.39		0.59	0.94		0.55
Asian	0.03	0.01	0.24	−0.17	−0.07	0.19	−0.15	−0.06	0.17
Black or African American	0.43	0.16	0.28	−0.12	−0.05	0.23	−0.10	−0.04	0.21
Middle Eastern	0.29	0.06	0.34	−0.02	−0.004	0.28	−0.002	0.000	0.26
White	−0.08	−0.04	0.24	−0.23	−0.11	0.19	−0.18	−0.08	0.17
Hispanic	−0.26	−0.06	0.34	−0.27	−0.06	0.27	−0.10	−0.02	0.25
Family Income	−0.61**	−0.26**	0.16	−0.27*	−0.12*	0.13	−0.28*	−0.12*	0.12
Extracurricular Activities inside school	0.01	0.006	0.16	0.11	0.06	0.11	0.13	0.06	0.10
Extracurricular Activities outside school	0.04	0.02	0.14	−0.14	−0.07	0.11	−0.09	−0.05	0.10
Teacher Bias Efficacy				−0.33**	−0.34**	0.06	−0.19**	−0.19**	0.06
Experiences of Discrimination				0.23**	0.23**	0.07	0.14*	0.14*	0.06
Experiences of Bullying				0.24**	0.24**	0.06	0.13*	0.13*	0.06
Teacher as Mentor Relationship							−0.40**	−0.40**	0.07
R^2	.12**			.46**			.52**
Change in R^2				.33**			.09**

* = p < .05, ** = p < .001

Figure 2. Mediation model with race as antecedent, experiences of bias and bullying, teacher as mentor relationship, and teacher bias efficacy as mediators, and educational displacement as antecedent. Note. This figure shows 95%-Bootstrap-CIs of the regression coefficients between antecedent, mediators, and consequent. The path between the antecedent and consequent indicates the direct effect, i.e. the effect of race on educational displacement after the mediators are partialized out. Non-significant relations and non-significant mediators are marked with a dashed line. Nonwhite was coded as 1, white was coded as 0. All variables are standardized. The graph shows that Teacher-as-Mentor Relationships as well as experiences of discrimination significantly mediate the effect of identifying with a nonwhite group and reporting higher feelings of educational displacement.

Figure 3. Impact of educational displacement on different stakeholders in education and society.

Items of the educational displacement scale

Item	M	SD
Note the degree to which you agree or disagree with the following statements about your experiences in school:
I like being at school	2.55	0.62
I get along with the students at this school	2.58	0.68
I feel safe when I am at school	2.42	0.63
I feel like I belong at this school	2.36	0.61
The students at this school have the same values as me	2.41	0.61
Teachers at my school are fair to me	2.33	0.62
Teachers include me in classroom activities	2.35	0.66
What we learn in school reflects my interests	2.29	0.65
What we learn in school focuses on issues I am concerned with.	2.25	0.63
Stories we read and analyze reflect my lived experience	2.07	0.57
Stories we read and analyze represent me	2.06	0.57
I never feel marginalized or silenced by my teachers	2.17	0.57
I never feel marginalized or silenced by my peers	2.34	0.62
I am proud to go to this school	2.33	0.61
I have many friends at this school	2.37	0.62

Sabic-El-Rayess, A. (2021). How do people radicalize? International Journal of Educational Development, 87, 102499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2021.102499

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