The Norwegian Dugnad in Times of COVID-19

Figures & data

Figure 1. Articles per quartile.

Table 1. Imposition subcategories: definitions, explanations, examples.

Assertion	Declaration or acknowledgment of the existence of a dugnad; Implementation of rules, regulations and laws
	Solberg’s March 12th speech, where she introduces the concept of dugnad while simultaneously imposing drastic restrictions on personal liberty, is an example (see section 1). At other times, we find cases where the existence of a dugnad against corona is mentioned as if it were a given, as in (1).
	It could be that our dugnad will last longer than we hope and wish for. Høie, 23.03.2020 Dagbladet
Policing	Enforcement of regulations; Criticism of individuals/groups for lack of participation
	This subcategory includes policing in its literal sense related to law enforcement, and is exemplified by many of the DUGNAD occurrences from the Minister of Justice. An example is (2), where Mæland launched the new term dugnadsprofitør [dugnad profiteer] in reference to employers “misusing” the dugnad by first laying off their employees, only to then force them to do the same work without pay. The policing subcategory also includes examples of moral policing, involving criticism of nonparticipation, as in Høie’s pointed response in (3) to a published opinion piece criticizing some of the government’s new restrictions.
	(2) Dugnad profiteers will be investigated, exposed and punished. Mæland, 27.04.2020 Aftenposten (3) This is a dugnad. Now it is no longer I anymore, but we. Høie, 16.03.2020 Aftenposten
Praise	Expression of approval for individuals/groups for their dugnad participation
	Government members frequently thanked and praised the Norwegian people for their general willingness to participate in dugnads, as well as for their actions supporting the corona dugnad specifically, as in (4).
	(4) We’ve managed to get through tough times before. With cooperation, dugnad spirit and stubbornness, we’ll also manage it this time. Solberg, 01.08.2020 Dagbladet
Request	Advice, encouragement or urging to participate in the dugnad
	Instances of this subcategory are recognized through the use of verbs such as be [request” and oppfordre [encourage]; see (5).
	(5) In March, we requested that the population join in a dugnad to stop the virus when we closed down society. Høie, 02.05.2020 VG

Figure 2. Observed occurrences of the corona dugnad metaphor per member of government.

Figure 3. Observed occurrences of imposition instances: March 2020 – June 2021.

Table 2. Endorsement subcategories: definitions, explanations, examples.

Exhortation	Pleading or urging for participation in the corona dugnad
	Some of these instances, as in (7), used the same mild language as the national politicians when “requesting” Norwegians to participate in the dugnad. Many further examples were more emphatic, as in (8) where Oslo police beg young people not to party. Similar pleas came directly from people at particular risk (or from their loved ones), as well as from overwhelmed health personnel. Still others implored people to abide by the dugnad so that society need not completely shut down. In (9), for instance, a mother of six children advises people to do their part to ensure that the schools stay open.
	(7) The city council leader encourages Oslo citizens to stay home at Easter, with good books and family time. […] We will look back on this for a long time and say that we were collected in the dugnad. Oslo local politician, 01.04.2020 Dagbladet (8) Dear young people, please, drop the party. You might not fall ill, but consider your fellow citizens. Be compassionate and stay away from parties and gatherings with others. You can say that you have contributed to the dugnad. Oslo police, 13.03.2020 Dagbladet (9) Keep your children home from school. That fully corresponds with the dugnad spirit. Because if enough people do that, the schools won’t have to close, and doctors and nurses who have to work can keep their children there. Mother of six, 12.03.2020 Dagbladet
Participation	Volunteering; Description of own participation
	In contrast to the exhortation subcategory where people implore others to join in the dugnad, the participation category consists of utterances where people themselves volunteer for the corona dugnad or alternatively, explain measures that they are taking to contribute to the dugnad. In (10), for instance, a medical student begs to be allowed to use his newly developed skills to help in hospitals. By contrast, a professional influencer explains her own way of contributing to the dugnad during Christmastime in (11).
	(10) Use me! There are many of us who want to participate in this dugnad now. Medical student, 14.03.2020 VG (11) Speaking to Dagbladet, the 30-year-old woman says that she and her family will do their part in the dugnad by staying at home as much as possible this Christmas. Influencer, 24.12.2020 Dagbladet
Assertion	Declaration or acknowledgment of the existence of a dugnad
	The assertion subcategory consists of cases where the corona dugnad is simply asserted, mentioned as if its existence were in no doubt. It largely corresponds to the imposition assertion subcategory, except with respect to implementation of the pandemic restrictions, which only the prime minister and cabinet decided. A hairdresser provides an example of this type of endorsement in (12) in an opinion piece where she asks the public to not cut their hair themselves while the salons are closed, in solidarity with haircare professionals.
	(12) In Norway, we now have a dugnad to eradicate the COVID-19 pandemic. Hairdresser, 08.04.2020 Dagbladet
Praise	Expression of approval for individuals/groups for their dugnad participation
	The praise subcategory of endorsement corresponds to that of the imposition category, as Norwegians generally also expressed pride in their actions during the pandemic, along the same lines as national government officials; see (13).
	(13) We continuously hear about people who are willing to go to great lengths to help others. It has almost become a cliché to say so, but this is the Norwegian dugnad spirit at its very best. Member of Norwegian Young Conservatives, 25.03.2020 Aftenposten
Policing	Enforcement of regulations; Criticism of individuals/groups for lack of dugnad participation
	This endorsement subcategory is similar to the imposition policing subcategory in that both include literal policing on the part of law enforcers, as well as moral policing, albeit in inverse proportion with far more instances of moral policing by the general public that by members of the national government. As an example, a lawyer recounts in late March 2020 how an older woman had admonished her as she unintentionally almost came to stand closer than a meter away: “the heart-warming corona dugnad is developing a dark side” (27.03.2020 Aftenposten) as Norwegians turn into dugnadspoliti [dugnad police]. Xenophobic elements were also evident, as in (14) in a far-right politician’s scapegoating after the virus spread during a wedding celebration held in an immigrant community.
	(14) The Progress Party member points toward immigrant communities as being the worst offenders in the dugnad against the spread of the virus. Progress Party MP Erlend Wiborg, 08.12.2020 Dagbladet

Figure 4. Observed occurrences of endorsement instances: March 2020 – June 2021.

Table 3. Resistance subcategories: definitions, explanations, examples.

Insufficient	Expression that the response to the pandemic through a national dugnad is not enough
	This subcategory includes cases where the corona dugnad is said to be too weak as a response to the pandemic. In (15), the writer compares Norway’s implementation of a dugnad unfavorably with China’s more draconian (and presumably more effective) response. Here the writer advocates for a much stricter reaction than a dugnad presumably licenses, and is thus critical to the entire notion of dugnad in the pandemic context. By contrast, an economist in (16) complains that the government measures imposed as part of the corona dugnad are simply not enough, and instead calls for forcing dugnad participation, including a curfew in Oslo.
	(15) In China, hospitals are built in ten days, while here it takes us ten years to find a plot of land. In Norway, advice is given on travel restrictions, and we politely ask for a dugnad to fight COVID-19. Doctor, 11.03.2020 Aftenposten (16) Without the political will to force everyone to participate in the dugnad, the conscientious majority of the population must give up more freedom for a much longer period of time. Economist, 01.03.2021 Aftenposten
Not dugnad	Disagreement that the governmental measures against the pandemic are a dugnad
	Many instances classified in this subcategory criticize the measures as not aligning with traditional conceptions of dugnads. In (17), a pensioner reacts to the government’s imposition of a (temporary) cabin law that banned stays at cabins outside one’s home municipalities, maintaining that the corona dugnad is undemocratic. That the dugnad was obligatory rather than voluntary was also a focus of criticism, combined with the perception of inegalitarianism in the sense that some are contributing (that is, suffering) more than others; see (18). As an actor explains in an opinion piece entitled Dette er ingen dugnad [This is not a dugnad], “[s]ome can sit in their homes and isolate, […] while others HAVE TO go out in the world to survive” (08.01.2021 Dagbladet; uppercase script in the original). Other instances of the not dugnad subcategory are exemplified by (19), where a nurse writes that she is carrying out her job, not participating in a dugnad. This sentiment was expressed not only by and on behalf of healthcare practitioners, but also teachers.
	(17) It is not a dugnad spirit that is emerging in Norway; it is panic that triggers isolationism, an attack on our democracy. Pensioner, 15.03.2020 Aftenposten (18) There are some people – yes, many – who are offering far more than others in this national, obligatory “dugnad.” Most of the people who are losing the most in work life are precisely those who have the least from before. Author/philosopher/politician, 05.01.2021 Aftenposten (19) “Dugnad,” the minister of health called it. We didn’t call it dugnad. We called it a job. Nurse, 11.07.2020 Dagbladet
Yes, but	Willingness to participate, combined with reservations
	This subcategory includes instances where the producers stress that they are actively participating in the corona dugnad (yes), while at the same time they criticize various aspects (but). In (20), a researcher explains that dugnad participation is not necessarily easy, as it takes time to develop new habits. Other such mild forms of criticism come from citizens who overtly state that they are corona dugnad participants, but find the experience frightening or hope it will end soon. We see another form of yes, but criticism in (21), where a student who supports the dugnad nevertheless questions the wisdom of the implemented regulations and desires better justification and/or an adjustment of the rules. More serious criticism is expressed in (22), where the director of the Oslo Trade Association first asserts that his members are contributing toward the corona dugnad, while simultaneously warning that financial compensation will be needed – a sentiment also often expressed by e.g. Norwegian sports associations. Such demands break with the defining characteristics of the dugnad, i.e. that they are voluntary and uncompensated.
	(20) We – the people – are now asked to keep our distance and wash our hands. It sounds easy, and we are more than willing to participate in the dugnad, but it is not entirely simple. Researcher, 26.03.2020 VG (21) I do not want to neglect my responsibilities in the dugnad, but as far as I know, there hasn’t been any issue with the spread of the virus in study halls and school libraries. University student, 28.01.2021 Aftenposten (22) We are of course participating in the COVID-19 dugnad, recognize its seriousness, and hope that the lockdown measures will be brief. At the same time, the industry relies on compensation schemes. Director of Oslo Trade Association, 24.01.2021 Aftenposten
No longer	Expression that once was a dugnad is now over
	Instances in this subcategory express implicit or explicit agreement that the initial governmental response to the pandemic could be characterized as a dugnad, but that such a state cannot last indefinitely. For instance, in (23) a union leader warns that the pandemic response cannot be characterized as a dugnad indefinitely, while in (24), the mayor of a small town asserts in April 2021 that the accepted duration of dugnads had been exceeded.
	(23) There are limits to how long we can call it a dugnad. Union leader, 23.10.2020 Aftenposten (24) We see a clear change in mood among our citizens, from actively participating in the dugnad to a phase where people are tired and weary. Mayor, 17.04.2021 VG
Non-participation	Refusal to participate in the corona dugnad
	Here producers (at least implicitly) accept the underlying premise that the pandemic response is indeed a dugnad, but nevertheless refuse – or threaten to refuse – participation. We see this in (25), where a photographer demands certain conditions in return for supporting the dugnad. Note that this example of the non-participation type differs from examples of the yes, but type such as (21), in that while both criticize some aspects of what they agree is a dugnad, the student in the latter makes no threat of nonparticipation; to the contrary, he explicitly states his intention of continued support.
	(25) In order for the population to continue supporting the dugnad, it is important that the measures are targeted and logical. Photographer, 20.03.2020 Aftenposten

Figure 5. Observed occurrences of resistance instances: March 2020 – June 2021.

Figure 6. Summary: observed occurrences of resonance types: March 2020 – June 2021.

Data availability statement

Replication and supplemental data that support the findings of this study are openly available in the online data depository DataverseNO at https://doi.org/10.18710/3JRV40.